naturally acquired passive immunity
transfer is mother to child across placenta or in breast milk
artificially acquired passive immunity
transfer of serum containing antibody for another person or animal
chronic bronchitis
bronchial edema, chronic cough, inflammation results from respiratory infection or irritation from smoke or pollution
internal intercostals
what muscles assist with exhalation
breathing
ventilation of the lungs
external respiration
gas exchange in the lungs
internal respiration
gas exchange in tissues/cells
cellular respiration
production of ATP
resistance
surface tension to alveoli, surfactant released to reduce this tension
compliance
tendency of lungs to expand due to pulling action exerted by pleural membranes
functions of respiratory system
ventilation of the lungs; filtering, warming, humidification of air; exchange of respiratory gases (waste removal, pH balance); detection of odors, sound production; defense
respiratory pump
aids in venous return, return of lymph
URT parts
nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharynx
URT functions
warm/humidify/filter air, vocalization, olfaction, knocking out particles, equalizing pressure in head
LRT parts
larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
LRT function
movement of air, site of gas exchange, protection of lungs, pressure changes
conducting zone
move air into lungs
respiratory zone
gas exchange through squamous epithelium of alveoli, through capillaries into blood
nose
what is the resonating chamber for vocalization
vestibule
space contained within the external nasal structures
internal nares
paranasal sinus ducts
structures of the nose
vestibule, nasal cavity, internal nares, nasal septum, nasal conchae, olfactory epithelium
cartilage of the larynx
epiglottis, thyroid, cricoid, arytenoid, cuneiform, corniculate
thyroid cartilage
adam’s apple
slender, shorter folds
higher pitch
thicker, longer folds
lower pitch
phonation
air passing through the glottis vibrates vocal cords
articulation
resonation of sound in sinuses and against structures, fine movement of voluntary muscles (tongue, cheek, lips)
what do the cartilages in the larynx do
regulate air volume
trachea
continuous with larynx, ciliated columnar epithelium, 15-20 c-shaped cartilages
function of tracheal cartilage
prevent collapse, protect airway, flexible enough to let food pass in esophagus
bronchial tree
epithelium changes to simple columnar in terminal bronchioles, cartilage decreases, smooth muscle increases
hilus
where do the primary bronchi enter the lungs
right lung
superior, middle, inferior lobes
left lung
superior, inferior, cardiac notch
mucus and serous gland secretions
what do ciliated regions produce
psuedostratified ciliated columnar
nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, nasopharynx, trachea, inferior portion of larynx, main bronchi, lobar bronchi
simple ciliated columnar
segmented bronchi, smaller bronchi, large bronchioles
simple ciliated cuboidal
terminal and respiratory bronchioles (progressive loss of cilia)
simple squamous
alveolar ducts and alveoli
nonkeratinized stratified squamous
regions subject to abrasion (oropharynx, laryngopharynx, superior portion of larynx
tonsils
pharyngeal (adenoids), palatine, lingual
pulmonary circulation
gas exchange
bronchial circulation
part of systemic, transportation of nutrients/wastes to larger airways
azygos
right bronchial vein
hemiazygos
left bronchial vein
pressures that change
intrapulmonary/intra-alveolar and intrapleural
pressure that doesn’t change
atmospheric (760mmHg)
sympathetic innervation of the bronchioles
t1-t5, bronchodilation
parasympathetic innervation of the bronchioles
vagus nerve, bronchoconstriction, innervates the larynx
smooth muscle
what muscle is innervated by the ANS
eupnea
normal breathing involving all 3 pressures
accessory
what muscles assist with inhalation
Boyle’s law
volume and pressure are inversely related when temp is constant
inspiration
diaphragm contracts and flattens, ribcage rises, external intercostals contract, volume increases, intrapulmonary pressure decreases
muscles of inspiration
diaphragm (75%), external intercostals (25%), sternocleidomastoid, pectoralis major and minor (speed and movement)
expiration
volume decreases, diaphragm relaxes, ribcage lowers, intrapulmonic pressure rises, air flows out due to elastic recoil
elastic recoil
surfactant in lungs reduces surface tension
muscles of expiration
abdominals, internal intercostals
high compliance
lungs expand easily with pressure gradient
low compliance
lungs resist expansion with pressure gradient
reasons for low compliance
increased surface tension, loss of elastic fibers, blockage of passageways, decreased flexibility of thoracic cage, other factors that reduce natural resilience of lungs
elasticity
process by which lungs return to resting volume
air makeup
N2- 78.6%, O2- 20.9%, CO2- 0.04%, water/other gases- 0.5%
how to calculate partial pressure
multiplying the fraction occupied by the gas times the total pressure of the mixture
henry’s law
when a mixture of gases is in contact with a liquid, each gas will dissolve in the liquid in proportion to its partial pressure
decompression sickness patho
rapid decrease in pressure surrounding someone, nitrogen is absorbed in tissues at depth according to ambient pressure, nitrogen gas bubbles out of blood and lodges in tissues/vessels
decompression sickness symptoms
tissue damage, CNS damage, cardio/pulm reactions, bubbles in/near joints that cause pain, spinal flexion (the bends)
pulmonary gas exchange
oxygen diffuses from air to alveoli to blood in pulmonary capillaries, CO2 goes the other way, converts deoxygenated blood to oxygenated
partial pressure of oxygen in alveoli
100mmHG
partial pressure of oxygen in pulmonary capillaries
40mmHg
partial pressure of CO2 in alveoli
40mmHg
partial pressure of CO2 in pulmonary capillaries
45mmHG
factors affecting rate of pulmonary/systemic exchange
partial pressures, diffusion distance, molecular weight and solubility of gases, surface area available for gas exchange
why does oxygen enter tissues
pressure, pH, partial pressure of CO2, temperature, 2,3-biphosphoglycerate (BPG)
where does CO2 in the blood go
HCO3- (70%), globin (23%), dissolved in plasma (7%)
medulla
respiratory center of the brain
dorsal respiratory group
neurons activate inspiration
ventral respiratory group
neurons activate expiration (only forced)
function of pons
responsible for fine-tuning the actions of medullary centers, smooth out transitions from inspiration to exhalation, prevents over-inflation of lungs
peripheral chemoreceptors
aortic sinus and carotid sinus, respond to increased CO2 and decreased pH
central chemoreceptors
in medulla, respond to increased CO2 and decreased pH
increase PCO2
increase RR
decrease PCO2
decrease RR
increased pH
decrease RR
decrease pH
increase RR
what do baroreceptors do
modify RR based on BP (inversely related)
hearing-breurer reflex
not involved in normal breathing
inflation reflex
protective reflex initiated by extreme overinflation; inhibition of inspiratory centers and stimulation of expiratory centers
deflation reflex
protective reflex initiated by lung deflation; inhibits expiratory centers and stimulate inspiratory centers
protective reflexes
triggered in response to toxic vapors, chemical irritants, or mechanical stimuli
apnea
temporary suspension of breathing followed by forceful expulsion of air (sneezing coughing, laryngeal spasms)
hypercapnia
acidosis
hypercapnia causes
neuromuscular diseases, chest trauma, acute lung disease
hypercapnia effects
increase in blood PCO2, decrease in blood pH, more carbonic acid formed, increase in CO2 in IF, increase in blood HCO3-
hypocapnia
alkalosis
hypocapnia causes
anxiety, fever, injury to respiratory center
hypocapnia effects
decrease in PCO2, increase in blood pH, carbonic acid is lost, chemoreceptors increase HR, decrease in blood HCO3-
endoderm
where do most respiratory structures come from
ectoderm
what forms the nasal cavities