FS Past & Present Exam 1 Content

Pagan

Follower of a polytheistic religion that is generally uncivilized or a non-religious person.

Cultural Universal

Cultural practice found in all societies that fills a need of the people (marriage, funerals, sports, war).

Current Day Cremation

The reduction of a dead human body to inorganic bone fragments by intense heat in a specifically designed retort or chamber; a heating process which incinerates human remains.

Obsequies

Funeral rites or burial ceremonies.

Funeralization

Progression of activities, beginning at death, and continuing beyond final disposition of the body.

Major Types of Final Disposition Throughout History

Burial in the ground, Entombment in caves/pyramids, Cremation on funeral pyres.

Characteristics of early ground burials

Deceased wrapped in cloth/woven mats/animal skins, and buried with items for the “next life” such as food, tools, and weapons.

Characteristics of later early burials

Deceased placed in container such as sarcophagus, vault, or coffin. Burials become more elaborate.

Cremation in Ancient Times

Less common disposition because ancient religions did not believe in destroying the body.

The first great civilization to practice cremation

Greeks.

Influences of final dispositions

religious beliefs, cultural beliefs, customs, traditions, fashions, and laws.

Functions of Funeralization

Social change, confirms organization of society, expression of emotions and religious beliefs.

New Practices of Modern Funerals

Cultures that dance carrying the casket, Honorary pall bearers, motorcycle escorts, rocket launching cremated remains to the mood, balloon arches, coral reefs, butterfly release, mushroom suits.

Services offered to decedent and family in the modern day

embalming/dressing/cosmetizing/casketing, viewing/visitation/wakes/vigils, funeral service/procession, comittal service, final disposition.

Jews are buried in ___.

arrons

Alkaline Hydrolysis

Final disposition process involving water to “cremate” the deceased. not legal in all US states.

Climate restrictions on funeralization

Many northern states may not be able to perform burials until spring time due to ice and permafrost.

Humanistic Funeral

Non-religious or atheistic funeral service.

Memorial Society

non-profit/non-religious organization that helps consumers obtain reasonably priced end of life funeral arrangements.

Modern Methods of Final Disposition

Direct cremation/cremation with ceremony, immediate/traditional burial, entombment, anatomical donation, alkaline hydrolysis, natural decomposition.

Who invented embalming?

Egyptians.

Egyptian Death Beliefs

6 Elements of the body, Theologies of sun worship, Cult of Osiris, The Circle of Necessity.

6 Elements of the body (Egypt)

Ba, Yakhu, Name, Shadow, Heart, Ka.

Ba

Soul that comes from deity/higher power. Struggles between good and evil throughout life. Goes to the “Hall of Truths” upon death.

Hall of Truths

Ba stands before 42 judges where the heart is placed on the scale with an ostrich feather from Ma’at. Feather represents truth and justice, if the scale was balanced the deceased went before Osiris. If the heart was heavier than the feather, the soul was cast into darkness.

Yakhu

The shining one, the soul transported to the sun (Ba + Ka).

Shadow

Flesh and bones that is left of the deceased, physical human remains.

Name (Egypt)

Identity of the deceased, previously hidden for fear their afterlife may be tampered with if anyone knew their true identity.

Heart

Seat of intellect and emotions. Same function as the brain, but not the actual brain, as they did not understand how the brain worked at the time.

Ka

Spirit, life force, and spiritual double of the person that remained with the dead, and the most important element of the body. A person was believed to be dead when it left the body. Demands attention and offerings at the funeral so it did not get angry and torture the living. Foundation of funeralization.

Ra

Egyptian god of the sun, primary deity.

Theologies of Sun Worship (Egypt)

The sun was the center of the universe, a symbol of resurrection.

Osiris

Egyptian god of the underworld and judge of the dead. Green skin, wears crowns of upper and lower Egypt.

Seth

Brother of Osiris.

Horus

Son of Osiris and Isis.

Isis

Wife of Osiris and mother of Horus.

The Circle of Necessity

Upon death, the Ba begins a 3,000 year round trip journey to the sun. Life continued at the grave because Ka is in the grave. Body must be intact to have Ba return. Body is completely restored/resurrected upon the return of Ba, deceased would then live with the gods. Created the need for embalming.Na

Reasons for Embalming in the Modern Day

Disinfection, Preservation, Restoration.

Natron

Salt and soda solution for packing the body to dehydrate it, found in dry lake beds of the desert (Egypt).

Composition of Natron

Sodium Chloride, Sodium Carbonate, Sodium Sulfate, Potassium Nitrate.

Mummy History

400,000+ discovered, used as fuel for trains during English colonization of Egypt, no longer being searched for due to controversy.

Embalming and Social Class

Required for all Egyptian bodies, but there were different packages based on social status and elaborate rituals.

Grade 1 Embalming

Lowest class, body wrapped tightly in cloth to purge organs of all liquids. Body placed in Natron, then covered in pitch/wood tar or bitumen and returned to the family. Most well preserved mummies.

Grade 2 Embalming

Middle class. Inserted rectal plug and injected body cavities with cedar oil which dissolved internal organs, body placed in natron for 70 days. Rectal plug then removed and contents drained out of body, then returned to family.

Cedar Oil in Embalming

Acted as insecticide and antimicrobial agent, became amber sap that solidifies as hard as stone over time.

Grade 3 Embalming

Upper class and Royalty. Brain removed through nose, evisceration/disembowelment of organs, canopic jars optional. Immersion in natron for longest time, bandaging and then returned to family.

Brain Removal - Grade 3 Embalming

Hook inserted through nostril, punctured cribriform plate of ethmoid bone. Cranium packed with linen strips soaked in pitch or asphalt compound.

Evisceration/Disembowelment - Grade 3 Embalming

Organs removed through small incision in the abdomen. Organs washed in wine and spices and returned to body cavity packed with spices, oils, resins, and perfumes or in canopic jars.

4 Types of Canopic Jars

Mestha, Tuamutef, Qebhesnnuf, Hapi. Named after the 4 sons of Horus.

Mestha Jar

Man-headed jar, protected stomach and large intestines.

Tuamutef Jar

Jackal-headed jar. Protected heart and lungs.

Qebhsennuf Jar

Hawk-headed jar. Protected liver and gallbladder.

Hapi Jar

Dog-headed/Baboon Jar. Protected small intestines.

Post-Evisceration - Grade 3 Embalming

Incision in abdomen closed with resin or wax, then covered with wax or metal plate engraved with the eye of Horus.

Eye of Horus

Symbolizes a deity in need that receives an eye and is restored to well being. Symbol of protection against evil.

Natron Immersion & Removal

Body dehydrated for 20-70 days, usually 40. Body then cleansed, straightened, and exposed to sun for additional dehydration, then bandaged.

Bandaging (Egyptian Embalming)

1,200 yards of 3 ¼ inch linen bandages affixed with gum or glue. Body wrapped in religious amulets. Nails reattached with gold wire or replaced with gold thimbles. reciting prayers and ornamentation added. 30 day process.

Mummia

Persian word for gum or glue.

Greek Death Beliefs

a bad and evil part of life, not celebrated. afterlife was a vague idea, “living a bodily existence under the earth,” later changed to no body.

Alienato Mentis

metaphysical sense of achieving a higher state of contemplation, ecstasy, or union, with a limited existence in the world, reaching the divine realm. Ex: being hammered, separation of soul from body, journey to union with the cult god.

Mystery Cults

religious belief emphasizing spiritual aspects of the afterlife and the hope of joining the cult god in a wonderful existence for eternity.

Elysian Fields (Elysium)

Greek version of heaven or paradise, not available to everyone. final resting place of the souls of heroes, the wealthy, and virtuous men. soul never really free from body.

Greeks - Preparation of the Body

eyes and mouth closed by relatives/friends. body washed in warm water by female family members. body anointed with oils, perfumes, spices, but no embalming. body dressed in white burial robe. mourners wore black. body laid out for 1-7 days to ensure death occurred and had not suffered violence, family fasting, ritualistic wailing.

River Styx (Greek)

Forms the boundary between Earth and the underworld.

Charon (Greek)

ferryman on the river styx, paid one coin (obol) typically put in the decedent’s mouth.

Cerberus (Greek)

3 headed dog that prevented the deceased from leaving the underworld, could be distracted with a honey cake, often put with the deceased.

Greeks - Funeral Procession

started one hour before dawn, went to funeral pyre, tomb or burial ground. Decedent carried on bier by relatives, friends, or hired corpse bearers. female mourners and fraternity members present. only men and women over 60 could join dismal march.

Greeks - Coffins

rudely fashioned using baking clay, cypress wood, or stone. may include painted floral designs.

Greeks - Earth Burial

Athens law dictated that burial was required for everyone. if there was no burial or funeralization, next of kin could not participate in politics.

Bas-relief

a greek method of molding, carving, stamping in which the design stands out from the surface, usually engraved on tombs.

Stelae

a greek burial tomb, a shaft, or upright grave.

Trapezae

a greek tomb that is square cut, most similar to modern graves.

Kiones

a greek tomb in the shape of a column.

Naidia

a greek tomb that resembles a temple.

Cremation (Greeks)

introduced in the late bronze age, used during battles in foreign lands, believed that it set the soul free.

3 Greek ages

Stone age, bronze age, iron age.

Funeral Feast (Greeks)

family fasted from death until event, and ended bereavement.

Professional Mourners

hired by greeks and romans (mostly women) to shriek, tear out their hair, and rend their garments to display an adequate emotional response.

Grave Sacrifices (Greek)

(early) slaves and horses of decedent slaughtered and placed in tombs.

Suttee

Sacrificial or group-inflicted cremation of widow as a sign of love and devotion. wives would often be cremated alongside husband, slaves, and animals. later offered wine and food instead.

Roman Funeralization

emergence of a secular role.

Roman Death Beliefs

some form of afterlife, continuing relationship between the living and the dead.

Animistic View

emphasizes the soul as the “vital principle” soul separate from body at death and hovered around place of burial, remaining in grave. soul demanded constant attention to be happy, neglect would invite evil.

Animism

The belief that spirits inhabit everything including people.

Evil Spirits (Roman)

soul needed to receive offerings of food and drink or it would go mad and haunt the living.

Philosophy of Epicureans

no sense of afterlife, body and soul made of atoms and disintegrated upon death.

Libitina

Roman goddess of corpses and the dead and funerals.

Libitinarius

Head Roman undertaker that provided mourning customs, secular role model reminiscent of today’s funeral directors.

Pollinctores

Ancient Roman embalmers, slaves or employees of Libitinarius.

Designator

Master of ceremonies and director of Roman funeral procession and directed funeral procession.

Praeco

Special funeral functionary who announced deaths summoned participants to a public funeral.

Roman Deathcare Process

Families polluted from touching the dead and considered impure until purification ceremony at the burial. body washed in warm water, anointed with oils and spices, dressed in white toga with insignia rank. body placed in emerald-colored funeral couch with feet to the door for 3-7 days, flowers, incense, pine boughs.

Roman Embalming

performed of pollinctores, sanitary benefits, body washed and anointed with spices and perfumes, cavity embalming reserved for wealthy and important people.

Funeralis

latin, “torch light procession” focal point of funeral procession. held at night so one could hide under the cover of darkness from evil spirits. wealthy had showy processions during the day.

Roman Funeral Processions - Poor People

praeco, mourners, family carried body on the shoulders, neighbors/friends, small band, at night.

Roman Funeral Processions - Rich People

parades with large band, professional mourners, buffoons/jesters imitating the decedent, wax mask of deceased ancestors, family/slaves/friends, torch bearers, daytime.

Extramural Burial

(Roman) outside city walls, internment in tombs and burial pits.

Columbarium

Roman structure/space in a mausoleum containing niches to hold cremated remains.

Miserapleebes

Roman state burials for the poor since funeralization was required.

Conclamatio Mortis

(Rome) calling out of the dead, escalated at the finale of funeral procession with scratching of faces and screaming the name of the decedent.