Psychology of Gender Exam 1

Sex

Traditionally, the biological aspects of being male or female; Eagly uses sex to refer to categories/groups such as male, female, and intersex.

Gender

The meanings people give to different categories and the broad set of attributes associated with maleness and femaleness.

Gender identity

How someone identifies and experiences their gender.

Sex-gender correspondence

Whether a person's gender identity matches their assigned sex.

Gender expression

How someone outwardly expresses their gender.

Gender roles

Socially expected gender-related behavior patterns.

Gender traits

Personality characteristics described as masculine, feminine, or androgynous.

Gender role attitudes

Beliefs about what the roles of women and men should be.

Gender stereotypes

Beliefs about characteristics supposedly shared by men or women.

Sexual orientation

Who someone develops romantic and sexual attraction toward.

Sex/gender binary

Treating sex or gender as two opposite, non-overlapping categories.

Gender non-binary

A gender identity outside the traditional male/female categories.

Intersexuality

When biological components of sex, such as chromosomes, hormones, genitals, or internal sex organs, do not consistently fit typical male/female patterns.

Androgyny

Having high levels of both masculine and feminine traits.

Gender fluidity

When a person's gender may fluctuate rather than remaining fixed within one category.

Cisgender

When gender identity matches sex assigned at birth.

Transgender

When gender identity does not match sex assigned at birth.

Agender

Not identifying with a gender.

Genderqueer

A gender identity that falls outside, between, or fluctuates among traditional binary categories.

Multifactorial Theory of Gender Identity

Spence's theory that many attributes, including roles, traits, and interests, contribute to gender identity.

Intersectionality

A framework for understanding how multiple forms of discrimination and oppression interact to shape people's experiences.

Privilege

An automatic, unearned advantage resulting from membership in certain social groups.

Patriarchal

A society in which men occupy leadership positions and control how society operates.

Matriarchal

A society in which women occupy leadership positions and control how society operates.

Equality

Treating people the same regardless of background or differences.

Equity

Treating people fairly while taking people's backgrounds and differences into account.

First-wave feminism

Feminism focused primarily on women's legal rights, especially voting rights.

Second-wave feminism

Feminism focused on equal legal rights, education, workplace access, and political participation.

Third-wave feminism

Feminism emphasizing intersectionality and a more global perspective.

Liberal feminism

The belief that men and women should be treated equally because they are equal in characteristics and ability.

Radical feminism

A form of feminism seeking to dismantle patriarchy, gender roles, and oppression of women.

Socialist feminism

A form of feminism focusing on the gendered division of labor and women's economic disadvantages.

Womanism

A perspective recognizing that race, gender, and class intersect.

Cultural/difference feminism

The view that fundamental differences between men and women exist and traditionally feminine qualities should be valued.

Transnational feminism

A form of feminism focused on reducing discrimination around the world, including poverty, health, gender violence, and educational inequality.

Men's movement

Movements and organizations focused on men's issues and men's roles.

NOMAS

National Organization for Men Against Sexism; a pro-feminist organization focused on combating sexism, racism, and heterosexism.

Promise Keepers

An evangelical Christian men's movement emphasizing men's spiritual health and men's role as head of the family.

1962

The year Illinois became the first state to decriminalize homosexual contact between consenting adults.

1973

The year the APA removed homosexuality from the DSM-II as a disorder.

2015

The year the Supreme Court struck down state bans on same-sex marriage.

2020

The year the Supreme Court ruled that firing someone for being LGBTQ is illegal.

Minimalist/Similarity Model

The view that there are relatively few important differences between men and women.

Maximalist/Difference Model

The view that there are large, fundamental differences between men and women.

Scientific method

A systematic process of asking questions, forming hypotheses, collecting and analyzing data, and drawing conclusions.

Quantitative research

Research using numerical data and statistical analysis.

Qualitative research

Research designed to provide detailed understanding of people's experiences, behavior, or social contexts.

Experiment

A research design in which a researcher manipulates an independent variable and measures a dependent variable, generally using random assignment.

Independent variable

The variable that is manipulated or treated as the possible cause.

Dependent variable

The variable that is measured as the possible effect.

Random assignment

Assigning participants to conditions by chance.

Ex post facto research

Research comparing groups that already differ on a participant variable without manipulation or random assignment.

Quasi-experimental research

Research with some characteristics of an experiment but without full experimental control, especially random assignment.

Correlational research

Research measuring existing variables to determine whether they are related.

Correlation

A statistic showing the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.

Positive correlation

As one variable increases, the other tends to increase.

Negative correlation

As one variable increases, the other tends to decrease.

Third-variable problem

A problem in which another variable may influence both variables being studied, making a causal interpretation difficult.

Focus group

A qualitative method in which a group discusses a topic while researchers collect information.

Ethnography

A qualitative method involving immersion in a particular social situation or culture.

Case study

An intensive study of one person or a small group.

Interview

A research method involving direct questioning of participants about their experiences, beliefs, or perspectives.

Meta-analysis

A quantitative technique that combines results from many individual studies.

Effect size

A measure of the magnitude or direction of a difference between groups or the strength of a relationship.

Statistical significance

A result that the lecture defines as having less than a 5% chance of occurring by chance alone.

Practical significance

Whether a research result is meaningful or important in the real world.

Within-group variability

How much individuals within the same group differ from one another.

Between-group variability

How much two groups differ from each other.

WEIRD

Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic.

WEIRD problem

The problem that psychology relies heavily on WEIRD participants, who may not represent people from other cultures.

Gender-fair research

Research that avoids sex bias in sampling, uses precise non-biased terminology, does not exaggerate sex differences, and does not claim biological causes without evidence.

Basow & Rubenfeld (2003)

Found that women were more likely to offer sympathy, men were more likely to change the subject, and there were no sex differences in other types of support.

Gene

A basic unit of heredity carrying instructions for characteristics passed to offspring.

Gene-by-environment interaction

When genetic effects depend on environmental circumstances or environmental effects depend on a person's genetic makeup.

Epigenetics

Biological mechanisms that influence whether genes are expressed.

Chromosome

An organized unit of genes; humans typically have 23 pairs.

Sex chromosomes

Chromosomes containing genes involved in sex development.

SRY

A sex-determining gene on the Y chromosome that directs sexual development along the male pathway.

Wolffian ducts

Precursors of the male reproductive tract.

Müllerian ducts

Precursors of the female reproductive tract.

Optimal sex

The binary sex perceived as most advantageous to assign to a newborn with gender-atypical genitalia.

DSDs/Differences of Sex Development

Variations present at birth in which sex development is atypical in chromosomes, gonads, or anatomy.

Turner Syndrome

A DSD involving XO chromosomes; typically female gender identity; characteristics include undeveloped ovaries and poor breast development at puberty.

Klinefelter Syndrome

A DSD involving XXY chromosomes; typically male gender identity; characteristics include small adult testicles, possible enlarged breasts, infertility, and learning disabilities.

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)

A condition involving XX or XY chromosomes and exposure to high levels of androgens; genetic females may identify as male or female.

Complete Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (CAIS)

A condition involving XY chromosomes in which androgen receptors do not function properly; typically results in female gender identity and female-appearing external genitals.

Partial Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (PAIS)

A condition in which androgen receptors have partial functioning; external genitalia may be atypical and gender identity may be male or female.

Intersexuality and gender identity

Intersexuality shows that biological sex is multidimensional and that chromosomes, gonads, hormones, anatomy, assigned gender, and gender identity do not always line up.

John Money

He believed gender identity was primarily caused by socialization and recommended early sex assignment and surgery for intersex infants.

Gender dysphoria

Significant distress resulting from a mismatch between sex assigned at birth and gender identity.

Heritability estimate

The proportion of total population variance in a trait attributable to genetic differences among people in that population.

h² = .67

Genes explain 67% of the population variance in a trait; it does not mean genes explain 67% of one individual's trait.

Heritability of masculine/feminine traits

Genes explain approximately 20–48% of population variance according to the lecture.

Heritability of gendered behavior

Estimates range from .10–.77, with most estimates around .25–.40.

78%

The percentage of the XY individuals discussed in the lecture who developed female gender identity as adults.

13%

The percentage of the XY individuals discussed in the lecture who experienced gender dysphoria.

22%

The percentage of the XY individuals discussed in the lecture who transitioned to male gender identity.

Intersex Society of North America recommendations

Intersexuality is primarily a problem of stigma and trauma; parents' distress should not be treated through surgery on the child; mental-health care and honest disclosure are important; assign children as boys or girls without early surgery.

Nature and nurture of gender identity

Both biological and environmental factors contribute to gender identity; neither nature nor nurture alone completely explains it.

8 variables of sex/gender

Chromosomal gender, gonadal gender, prenatal hormonal gender, prenatal/neonatal brain differentiation, internal organs, external genital appearance, pubertal hormonal gender, assigned gender, and gender identity.