Ottoman empire

history final

Constantinople

Conquered by Mehmet II in 1453. Great asset for Mediterranean trade. Symbol of Ottoman strength as an Islamic empire over the Byzantine Christian empire.

Suleiman the Magnificent

Tenth and longest reigning sultan of the Ottoman Empire. Ruled from 1520-1566 and expanded the empire into parts of Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. Led major campaigns such as the Siege of Vienna and battles against the Safavids. Known for legal reforms that strengthened the empire's justice system. Supported arts (architecture, literature, etc.) and oversaw many major construction projects such as the Suleymaniye Mosque (1557). Formed alliances with European powers such as France and allowed religious freedom through the millet system.

Janissaries

Slave boys not chosen as palace officials became trained for military service, becoming janissaries. They were completely loyal to the sultan, and were a defense against internal rivalries in the Turkish nobility. They played a central role in Ottoman military affairs. They also often rose in rank and became advisers for the Sultan and Grand Vizier.

Millet System

Each millet, or nation, had a religious leader that managed the community. The millet system shows that clear boundaries between different social groups were important for Ottoman political control.

harem

A social group of court women living within the confinements of the imperial palace, consisting of the sultan's mother, wives, concubines, and female servants. The women influenced the governing of the sultan, while his mother, favorite wives and particular concubines maintained importance within the group's social hierarchy. The group was typically led by the sultan's mother, who held the most authority within the group as 'Valide Sultan' or queen mother.

Devshirme System

The devshirme system was a practice done by the ottoman empire that forced christian boys to serve the state, usually as children, the best of the best became Janissaries while others were placed in education and worked their way into becoming high ranking government officials. The system helped create a loyal class system that relied on the Sultan for their place in society.

Mehmet II

Sultan of empire from 1444-46, then 1451-81. Known for conquering Constantinople. Fulfilled his duty as a Muslim by building mosques, schools, and other charitable institutions. All who had means were expected to contribute to the poor and upkeep of society. Government officials and the rich were required to follow his example. Toleration of Christians in Constantinople benefited the Church; could be seen as a strategic move

Ottoman religious tolerance

Islamic law commanded that all religious groups be treated with respect (including Christians), and logistically, following the fall of Constantinople, religious tolerance was simply easier to practice from the sultan's point of view, due to the expansive territory and threat of revolt. Thus, the treatment of non-muslims remained civil. Dhimmi were required to pay a special tax (jizya), but otherwise were left unbothered in religious communities. They could form their own schools, build religious spaces (though physical churches were initially seized by Mehmet), and practice religion freely. The Ottomans formed the millet system to regulate this practice of religious tolerance, and keep an illusion of control and organization. In the case of the Patriarch of Constantinople, the sultan consolidated power by giving him authority over all Christian matters.

Grand Vizier

Sultan's chief minister and the highest-ranking official after the Sultan. He led the Imperial Council and had broad authority over military, judicial, and administrative matters.

Silk Road

Trade route from Europe into Asia. Major point en route was Constantinople, and Ottomans controlled it. This allowed for the Ottomans to control trade. With a reduction in overland trade in favor of trade along global sea networks and with newly established colonies in Asia and Africa, European power grew as Ottoman power faded. The Ottomans were unable to withstand the challenges of European imperialism.

dhimmi

Known as "People of the Book" (recognized in the Quran), they were non-Muslim subjects (more so Christians and Jews) who resided in the Ottoman state that were given legal protection and the freedom to practice their religion as long as they were loyal to the state and if they paid the jizya tax

Turkish Notables

The Turkish Notables were another part of the complex Ottoman hierarchy. They were the descendants of the warriors who had fought alongside Osman, the first Ottoman conqueror, and other early Ottoman sultans during the early expansion years. They were granted lands and titles, and had a say in important decisions regarding the empire (like whether to approve the conquest of Constantinople, which many dissented). The legitimacy of a sultan also depended on their support.

scribes

Bureaucracy of scribes kept government records. They recorded the government's accounts of revenues and expenditures, in addition to recording the various actions and activities of the government.

jizya

A tax imposed on the dhimmi as a fee for protection by the Ottoman state.

Safavids

Promoted Shia Islam rather than Sunni which the Ottomans practiced. Was a threat to the empire. In Selim's reign. He tried to stop trade with them in Iran and killed those who were tracked down. Suleyman raged war in Anatolia against them.

Selim

Ruled from 1789-1807. Conquered the Mamluk empire. Did Not focus on administration. Hated the Safavids of Iran because they believed in Sunni Islam. Many Turkish subjects supported the Safavids. He Killed thousands of Safavid supporters in Anatolia.

Topkapi Palace

The Sultan's palace in Constantinople, built after it was conquered. It was very large with immense courtyards and hallways, as well as many soldiers and officials.

The First Crusade

The first Crusade was called upon by Pope Urban II in 1099 on the behest of the Byzantine Emperor to prevent the spread of Islam and to hold on to Byzantine power.

Under the Ottomans the Turks expanded into Europe. During the Ottoman expansion, large numbers of Turkish communities took root in what is now Bulgaria, Greece, and other countries of Southeastern Europe. As they settled, European Turks adopted or retained many local customs, while also remaining Turks

Hapsburgs

Ruling family of Austria, emperor Holy Roman Empire 1438-1806. Dominated European politics but were not a threat to the Ottomans.

Timar System

Land grant system where Sipahi cavalry received tax revenue from land in exchange for military service. It helped fund the army and maintained control over provinces. The sultan granted revenue rights over land to the Sipahi cavalrymen who collected taxes from peasants. Whenever they were called on they had to go serve in the military. This allowed the Ottomans to have a strong provincial army without having to pay for a large standing force. It integrated elites into the imperial structure.

vizir

The Grand Vizir met in council with other vizirs to advise the sultan. The duties of individual viziers could change often. But in general, individually, they were responsible for various government departments such as finance, trade, etc.

Ulema

The scholars and intellectuals of Sunni Islam (the sect of Islam followed by the Ottomans) were at the center of legal discussions. These scholars (ulema) applied the law of Islam, wrote the law books and acted as advisors who told judges and political leaders what could and could not be done legally. Scholars were sent out to the provinces to issue legal opinions there. The chief of the scholars named the judges who sat on official courts all over the Empire. They enforced the laws of Islam and the laws of the sultan.

Abbasid Caliphate

A Dynasty that ruled in Baghdad and the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad, they rose to power in 750 after destroying the Umayyad caliphate. The Abbasids were Shi'a muslim, Shi'a Muslims are part of the Shi'a Sect of Islam, they believe that the leadership of the Muslim community after Prophet Muhammad should have belonged to his descendants.

The Abbasids had a strong difficulty in governing their large empire and tensions between the Shiites and Sunnis only weakened them more. Their economy began to crumble under Harun (786-809). In the late 9th and 10th century there were many armed revolts that involved Shiite militants and local dynasties breaking away or setting up semi-independent states that collect taxes for themselves and make their own armies. This stopped any revenue for the Abbasid caliphate and only collected more power for themselves. These internal struggles weakened them.

Later the Abbasid was invaded and overtaken by the Mongols led by Ghengis Khan's grandson, Hulagu, who sacked Baghdad and destroyed their irrigation works, building pyramids of skulls in 1258.