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Neuron
The basic building block of the nervous system, responsible for transmitting information.
Dendrite
Branchlike structures that receive messages from other neurons.
Axon
A long, slender projection of a neuron that conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body.
Myelin sheath
A fatty layer that insulates axons and speeds up neural impulses.
Action potential
A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
Threshold
The level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential.
Refractory period
The resting period after an action potential during which a neuron cannot fire again.
All-or-none response
A phenomenon where a neuron either fires or does not fire; no partial firing occurs.
Synapse
The junction between two neurons where communication occurs.
Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that transmit signals across a synapse.
Reuptake
The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the neuron that released them.
Endorphins
Natural opiates produced by the body to relieve pain and boost pleasure.
Dopamine
A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention, and pleasure.
Acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter involved in memory and muscle contraction.
Serotonin
A neurotransmitter that regulates mood, sleep, and appetite.
Norepinephrine
A neurotransmitter involved in arousal and alertness.
Glutamate
The main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.
GABA
The main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.
Substance P
A neurotransmitter that conveys pain information.
Agonist
A substance that enhances the effects of a neurotransmitter.
Antagonist
A substance that blocks the effects of a neurotransmitter.
Nervous system
The system that coordinates actions and transmits signals between different body parts.
Peripheral nervous system
The part of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord.
Central nervous system
The brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing information.
Autonomic nervous system
The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary activities.
Somatic nervous system
The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements.
Sympathetic nervous system
The part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body for fight-or-flight responses.
Parasympathetic nervous system
The part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body and conserves energy.
Sensory (afferent) neurons
Neurons that carry incoming information from sensory receptors to the central nervous system.
Interneurons
Neurons that communicate within the central nervous system.
Motor (efferent) neurons
Neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.
Reflex
An automatic response to a sensory stimulus.
Endocrine system
The body’s slow chemical communication system that involves hormones.
Hormones
Chemical messengers secreted by glands in the endocrine system.
Adrenal gland
Glands that produce hormones related to stress response.
Pituitary gland
The endocrine gland that regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
Adrenaline
A hormone that increases heart rate and energy in response to stress.
Leptin
A hormone that helps regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger.
Ghrelin
A hormone that stimulates appetite.
Melatonin
A hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles.
Oxytocin
A hormone involved in social bonding and reproduction.
Lesion
Tissue destruction in the brain used to study function.
EEG (electroencephalogram)
A test that detects electrical activity in the brain.
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
A technique that uses magnetic fields to produce detailed images of the brain.
fMRI (functional MRI)
A type of MRI that measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow.
Brainstem
The part of the brain that connects to the spinal cord and controls basic life functions.
Medulla
The part of the brainstem that controls heartbeat and breathing.
Reticular formation
A network of neurons involved in controlling arousal and alertness.
Thalamus
The brain's sensory control center, directing messages to the sensory areas.
Cerebellum
The part of the brain that regulates motor control and coordination.
Limbic system
A group of structures involved in emotion, memory, and motivation.
Amygdala
A part of the limbic system involved in emotion regulation.
Hypothalamus
A small region of the brain that regulates bodily functions such as hunger, thirst, and temperature.
Cerebral cortex
The body's ultimate control and information processing center.
Glial cells
Non-neuronal cells in the nervous system that support and protect neurons.
Frontal lobes
Lobes of the cerebral cortex that are involved in reasoning and planning.
Parietal lobes
Lobes that process sensory information such as touch.
Occipital lobes
Lobes that are primarily responsible for vision.
Temporal lobes
Lobes that process auditory information and are involved in memory.
Motor cortex
An area of the cerebral cortex that controls voluntary movements.
Somatosensory cortex
An area of the cerebral cortex that processes sensory input from the body.
Association areas (Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area)
Regions of the cortex involved in higher mental functions.
Neuroplasticity
The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections.
Neurogenesis
The process of generating new neurons in the brain.
Corpus-callosum
The large band of neural fibers that connects the two brain hemispheres.
Split brain
A condition resulting from severing the corpus callosum, leading to divided brain functions.
Left-brain specialization
Refers to the left hemisphere's dominance in language and analytical tasks.
Right-brain specialization
Refers to the right hemisphere's dominance in spatial and artistic tasks.
Dual processing
The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.
Nature-Nurture
The debate over the relative contributions of genetics and environment to human development.
Environment
All external factors that can influence an individual’s development.
Heredity
The genetic transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring.
Behavior geneticist
A psychologist who studies the role of genetics in behavior.
Chromosome
A thread-like structure of DNA carrying genes.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
The molecule that carries genetic instructions for the development of all living things.
Genes
The basic units of heredity that carry information of traits.
Genome
The complete set of genes or genetic material present in a cell or organism.
Mutation
A change in a DNA sequence that can lead to variations.
Identical twins (monozygotic)
Twins that result from one fertilized egg splitting into two embryos.
Fraternal twins (dizygotic)
Twins that result from two separate eggs fertilized by two separate sperm.
Bouchard’s twin studies
Research that studied the similarities between identical and fraternal twins to understand heredity.
Molecular genetics
The field of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes.
Interact
The influence of one factor on another, often used in the context of genetics and environment.
Epigenetics
The study of heritable changes in gene expression that do not involve changes to the underlying DNA sequence.
Sleep
A natural state of rest for the mind and body.
Circadian rhythm
The biological clock that regulates the sleep-wake cycle.
REM sleep
A sleep stage characterized by rapid eye movement and vivid dreaming.
Alpha waves
Brain waves that are associated with relaxed, awake states.
NREM sleep
Non-rapid eye movement sleep, encompassing all sleep stages except REM.
Hallucinations
False sensory experiences that occur without external stimuli.
Hypnagogic sensations
Sensory experiences that occur just before falling asleep.
Delta waves
Slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.
Insomnia
A sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling or staying asleep.
Narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks.
Sleep apnea
A sleep disorder where breathing repeatedly stops and starts during sleep.
REM sleep behavior disorder
A disorder in which people act out their dreams during REM sleep.
Dream
A series of thoughts, images, or emotions occurring during sleep.
REM rebound
The tendency to experience increased amounts of REM sleep after a period of sleep deprivation.
Psychoactive drug
A chemical substance that alters perception, mood, or behavior.
Stimulants (caffeine, cocaine)
Drugs that increase neural activity and speed up body functions.
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