8.6-8.8

Jackie Robinson

The first African American to play Major League Baseball in the modern era, breaking the color barrier in 1947.

Harry S. Truman

The 33rd U.S. president who issued Executive Order 9981 to desegregate the military in 1948.

Committee on Civil Rights

A group established by Truman in 1946 to investigate racial discrimination and recommend policies for civil rights.

NAACP

The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, a civil rights organization fighting segregation and discrimination.

Thurgood Marshall

NAACP lawyer who argued Brown v. Board of Education, later becoming the first African American Supreme Court Justice.

Brown v. Topeka Board of Education

Landmark Supreme Court case (1954) ruling that racial segregation in public schools is unconstitutional.

Earl Warren

Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court who led progressive civil rights decisions, including Brown v. Board of Education.

Southern Manifesto

A 1956 statement by Southern lawmakers opposing the Supreme Court’s Brown v. Board ruling.

Desegregation

The process of ending racial segregation in public places, mainly schools.

Little Rock

Refers to the integration crisis at Little Rock Central High School in 1957, involving the Little Rock Nine.

Rosa Parks

Civil rights activist known for refusing to give up her bus seat, sparking the Montgomery Bus Boycott.

Martin Luther King Jr.

Civil rights leader who advocated nonviolent resistance and delivered the iconic "I Have a Dream" speech.

Nonviolent movement

Strategy of civil rights activists involving peaceful protests and civil disobedience.

Montgomery Bus Boycott

A year-long protest (1955-56) against segregated buses in Montgomery, sparked by Rosa Parks' arrest.

Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)

An organization founded by MLK Jr. aimed at coordinating civil rights activism and nonviolent protests.

Sit-in movement

Protest where activists sat at segregated lunch counters demanding equal service, prominently in Greensboro (1960).

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

A youth-led civil rights organization involved in sit-ins and voter registration efforts.

Civil Rights Commission

A federal commission established in 1957 to investigate racial discrimination.

Decolonization

The process where former colonies gained independence from European powers, notably post-World War II.

Third World

Term used in the Cold War for developing nations not aligned with the U.S. or Soviet Union.

Covert action

Secret operations by the CIA to influence foreign governments and counter communism.

CIA

Central Intelligence Agency, responsible for intelligence gathering and covert operations abroad.

Iran (1953 coup)

CIA and British intelligence coup against Iranian Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadegh to control oil resources.

Suez Crisis (1956)

Conflict arising from Egypt nationalizing the Suez Canal, involving intervention from Britain, France, and Israel.

Eisenhower Doctrine

U.S. policy offering military and economic aid to Middle Eastern countries threatened by communism.

OPEC

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, regulating oil prices and production globally.

Yom Kippur War

1973 conflict with Egypt and Syria's surprise attack on Israel, involving U.S. and Soviet involvement.

Oil embargo (1973-74)

OPEC's cut of oil exports to the U.S. in response to support for Israel, causing an energy crisis.

Camp David Accords (1978)

Peace agreement between Egypt and Israel brokered by President Carter.

Peace Corps

A program initiated by President Kennedy in 1961 to send American volunteers to promote education abroad.

Alliance for Progress

JFK's initiative aimed at improving economic conditions in Latin America.

Ngo Dinh Diem

Unpopular U.S.-backed leader of South Vietnam, assassinated in a 1963 coup.

Domino theory

The belief that if one country fell to communism, nearby countries would follow, justifying U.S. intervention.

John Foster Dulles

Eisenhower's Secretary of State known for his aggressive anti-communist stance.

Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO)

Cold War alliance formed to prevent communist expansion in Southeast Asia.

Tonkin Gulf Resolution (1964)

Authorized President Johnson to use military force in Vietnam without a formal war declaration.

General William Westmoreland

Commander of U.S. forces in Vietnam who advocated for increased military presence.

Credibility gap

Public distrust in government statements, especially regarding the Vietnam War.

Hawks

Supporters of the Vietnam War who wanted increased military action.

Doves

Opponents of the Vietnam War advocating for peace negotiations.

Tet Offensive (1968)

Coordinated attack by North Vietnamese forces that shocked Americans and turned public opinion against the war.

Robert F. Kennedy

Senator and presidential candidate assassinated in 1968 after advocating for civil rights and ending the Vietnam War.

George Wallace

Segregationist Alabama governor who ran for president in 1968, appealing to white backlash against civil rights.

Richard Nixon

U.S. president (1969-74) known for Vietnamization and resigning due to the Watergate scandal.

Democratic Convention in Chicago (1968)

A violent clash between anti-war protesters and police, symbolizing political turmoil.

Hubert Humphrey

Vice President under Johnson and Democratic nominee in 1968, who lost to Nixon.

White backlash

Negative reaction from some white Americans against civil rights policies.

Henry Kissinger

Nixon’s National Security Advisor involved in Vietnam negotiations.

Vietnamization

Nixon’s policy of gradually withdrawing U.S. troops and transferring the war effort to South Vietnam.

Nixon Doctrine

Policy stating the U.S. would provide aid to allies but avoid direct military intervention.

Kent State (1970)

A shooting incident where National Guardsmen killed four students protesting the Vietnam War.

My Lai Massacre (1968)

A U.S. military atrocity killing hundreds of unarmed Vietnamese civilians.

Pentagon Papers

Leaked documents revealing U.S. deception regarding the Vietnam War.

Paris Accords (1973)

Peace agreement that led to U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam.

War Powers Act (1973)

Law limiting the president's ability to send troops into combat without congressional approval.