Exam 3- Human Anatomy and Physiology

What is the first line of defense of the innate system?

The epidermis, the skin and the mucous membranes make up the "first line of defense."

What secretions of the innate immune system contain lysozyme?

Tears and saliva.

In a human cell, how many toll-like receptors can there be? (how many different types of toll-like receptors)

There are 11 types.

Neutrophils

are a type of white blood cell and are found at injury sights where local inflammation has occurred. They move toward injured tissues by means of chemotaxis.

Macrophages

are another white blood cell of the monocyte family. They are able to leave the bloodstream and roam the tissue spaces and look for non-self via TLRs

NK cells

the cells attack nonspecific targets, usually infected or cancerous cels, they are not true phagocytes but kill with granzymes and perforins which are a series of enzymes that destroy plasma membranes by creating holes for the cytoplasm to leak out.

What causes inflammation?

What form of interferon increases macrophage activity?

γ

How is the complement system activated?

There are three ways classic pathway, lectin pathway, and alternative pathway

Which complement factor promotes inflammation?

C3a

What is the function of the complement system in general?

What is pyrogen?

They are the signals that alter the set point. There are two types: exogenous and endogenous. also produces a fever

What are the differences between an adaptive and innate immune system?

While the innate system attacks nonspecific "non-self" targets, the adaptive immune system reads the antigen of a pathogen and formulates a target (epitope) and then secretes specific attacks (antibodies).

What is a hapten?

It is an incomplete antigen and are usually small molecules that cound bind with the body's own tissues and cause the adaptive immunes system to attack the combination of the hapten

What is an epitope?

Clusters of differentiation

They are cell surface markers that occur on immune system cells. The most notable are; CD4, CD8, CD16, CD19, CD20, CD24, CD25, CD14, CD44.

What are the 4 steps of lymphocyte development?

During a humoral immune response, what is the unique thing that happens on chromosomes 2 and 14?

They recombine to match the new epitope sequence.

How are b cells activated independent of CD4 helper cells?

Immunoglobulin A

immunoglobulin D

immunoglobulin C

immunoglobulin M

immunoglobulin E

What is the function of an antibody?

Where would I find an MHC2 receptor?

This cell surface, identity marker is only found on macrophages, dendritic cells or B cells.

How do I activate a T cell?

Interleukin 1

activates macrophages, promotes inflammation and fever.

Interleukin-5

activates eosinophils, increases secretion of IgA

Interleukin 10

down-regulates the immune response

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)

increase phagocyte chemotaxis, slows tumor growth by damaging tumor blood vessels and encouraging apoptosis of cancer cells.

What does a CD4 helper cell do?

Mobilize both humoral and cellular immune systems. They perform their coordination activities by the secretion of the aforementioned cytokines. Their roles include; activation of B cells, activation of CD8 cytotoxic T cells, and amplification of innate immunity.

What does interleukin 17 do?

Found in the inflammation of many autoimmune disorders.

Hodgkin's lymphoma

a proliferation of undifferentiated B cells that choke out proper T cell production.

Multiple sclerosis

destruction of the myelin sheath around CNS neurons.

Lupus

a systemic disorder found by locating antinuclear DNA antibodies in the patient's blood, DNA-anti DNA complexes in the kidneys.

Type I hypersensitivity

aka acute sensitivity- can be local or systemic. Locally, exposure to an allergen triggers IgE production which binds to Mast cells and Basophils and results in a histamine dump. Histamine results in inflammation. Signs of a local reaction include redness, swelling, and pain. Local reactions may also occur in the gastrointestinal tract. Hypersensitivity 1 is also known as anaphylactic shock.

Type II hypersensitivity

aka cytotoxic sensitivity- destruction of cells due to reactions of antibodies or activation of complement. Transfusion of mismatched blood types is an example

Type III hypersensitivity

results when the antigen-antibody complex cannot be cleared. Intense inflammation follows.

Type IV hypersensitivity

the only cell-mediated sensitivity- reactions take 1 to 3 days to appear. Inflammation then is the result. Contact dermatitis reactions are the best example (poison ivy, nickel content in cheap jewelry, etc.)

Pulmonary ventilation

movement of air into (inspiration) and out of (expiration) of the lungs.

External respiration

the exchange of gases in the alveoli of the lungs (diffusion).

Internal respiration

the exchange of gases in and out of the tissues.

Cellular respiration

the reduction of oxygen to form carbon dioxide while converting glucose into ATP.

What is the function of the nasal conchae?

nasopharynx

oropharynx

laryngopharynx

What are the trachea levels?

What are the tissue types in each trachea level?

What is the Carina?

Bronchiole tubes, what kind of tissues are there?

Bronchiole tubes

Type I alveolar cells

squamous cells surrounded by a basement membrane, they form the major part of each alveolar wall. The external surface of the alveoli is covered with pulmonary capillaries.

Type II alveolar cells

cuboidal cells that secrete an amphipathic surfactant to break up the surface tension of the alveolar fluid. These cells also secrete antimicrobial proteins.

What is unique about pulmonary circulation?

Parietal pleura

covers the superior surface of the diaphragm and the wall of the thoracic cavity. It is continuous around the heart and between the lungs.

Visceral pleura

covers the external surface of the lungs and in and out of the fissures.

Intrapulmonary pressure

air pressure within the alveoli.

What causes a collapsed lung?

What does Boyle's Law say?

It states that the pressure exerted by a gas is inverse to the volume of the gas. Less volume equates to more pressure and vice versa.

What is the normal tidal volume? What quantity is normal tidal volume?

Usually about 500 ml per breath.

What is the function of alveolar fluid?

Follow up of type 1 and type 2 alveolar cells.

Compliance

is the relationship between the alveolar surface tension and the distensibility of the lung tissue.

Resistance

is defined as the amount of friction the air encounters within the respiratory tract. As air passages get smaller and more branched, friction increases.

Fibrosis

lack of compliance.

Tidal volume

is the air inhaled/exhaled during a normal respiratory cycle. Usually about 500 ml per breath.

Perfusion coupling

oxygen saturation of the blood then depends upon the relationship between compliance and the amount of blood flow through the pulmonary capillaries. It is referred to as coupling because it takes both the respiratory and cardiovascular systems.

Inspiratory reserve volume

air forcefully inhaled (IRV). In males this volume is approximately 3100 ml while in females 1900 ml. (This difference is due to the size of the thoracic cavity).

Expiratory reserve volume

air forcefully exhaled as in blowing up a balloon (ERV). In males this volume is approximately 1200 ml while in females 700 ml. (Why guys are better at blowing up birthday balloons).

Anatomical dead space

air inhaled that never contributes to gas exchange. This air just fills the air passageway. Usually about 150 ml. (Gas exchange = 500 - 150 = 350 ml).

What does Dalton's Law say?

States that the total pressure exerted by a gas mixture is equal to the sum of partial pressures of the individual gases within the mix.

What is the function of BPG (2,3-biphosphoglycerate)?

When oxygen levels are low, BPG binds with hemoglobin and the conformation of hemoglobin is changed.

What is the Haldane effect?

The lower the partial pressure of oxygen or the lower the saturation of the hemoglobin with oxygen, the more carbon dioxide the blood can carry.

Sleep apnea

temporary cessation of breathing during sleep.

Orthopnea

labored breathing due to lying flat, hospital beds should always be at an angle to prevent this.

Hyperpnea

increased rate and depth of breathing due to exercise, pain or anxiety.

Emphysema

a long-term, progressive disorder caused by tobacco smoke, marijuana smoke, air pollution, or exposure to chemical vapors. Symptoms include: exhaustion/fatigue, barrel chest, right ventricle hypertrophy.

COPD

an irreversible damage of lung tissue that results in enlargement of the alveoli and loss of elasticity (compliance).

Tuberculosis

a progressive disorder due to an infection of the lung from mycobacterium. Results in fibrosis due to nodules in the lungs referred to as Tubercles.

Squamous cell carcinoma

a type of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Approximately 200,000 cases per year or 20-30% of all lung cancer cases. Usually affects people over the age of 40. Tumor grows near a bronchiole and is a slow-growing, progressive tumor.

Small cell carcinoma

occurs mostly in tobacco smokers. Approximately 200,000 cases per year or 20-30% of all lung cancer cases. Usually affects people over 40 who have a history of smoking. Signs include a bloody discharge and mucus with a deep cough and chest pain. Tumor grows near bronchi and is a very aggressive and may metastasize.

Adenocarcinoma

approximately 40% of all cases. Tumors occur in the peripheral areas of the lung and is seen in non-smokers. Affects women more than men. May metastasize to the lymph nodes. Non-aggressive with good survival chances.

Bronchial carcinoids

approximately 5 to 10% of all cases. Tumors are small and are slow to metastasize and can be surgically removed. Occurs in people under the age of 40.

Visceral peritoneum

covers the external surfaces of most digestive organs.

Parietal peritoneum

covers the abdominal wall.

Peritoneal cavity

a small space filled with lubricating fluid between the aforementioned.

Mesentery

functions to provide blood vessels and lymph vessels a way to reach the digestive tract, it holds the organs in place, and it stores fat.

Mucosa

innermost layer of intestinal wall. Villi of mucosa extends into the lumen and interfaces with the chyme (digesting food). Contains simple columnar tissue, goblet cells, and lymph nodes. Absorption of nutrients is the main activity.

Submucosa

loose connective tissue mostly. Also, blood vessels at this level carry nutrients away to the liver. This level also has lymph vessels and nerves. Main activity is support of the mucosa.

Muscularis

two layers of smooth muscle. Inner layer encircles the small intestine and contracts to decrease the diameter of the lumen. Outer layer runs the length of the small intestine and contraction shortens the tube (that is, aids in peristaltic action).

Serosa

lamina propria is the outermost layer and is mostly connective tissue. Also contains the visceral peritoneum which is simple squamous and connective tissue which secretes fluid for lubrication of the intestines to move within the abdominal cavity.

How many teeth does a human adult have?

Human adults have 32 teeth (8 incisors, 4 canines, 8 premolars, and 12 molars).

Process of swallowing.

Location of salivary glands

What two enzymes are contained in saliva?

Amylase and lipase.

Cardia

so called because it sits close to the heart; contains the esophageal sphincter and many touch receptors (feeling full) as well as triggers for the secretion of the hormone Gastrin.

Fundus

storage area of the stomach, holds chyme until mixed with gastric juice, may contain air (can you belch on command?)

Body

largest portion, many glands that secrete gastric juice (HCl and pepsinogen)