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Study of behavior and mental processes
Psychology
The __________ approach emphasizes unconscious thought, the conflict between biological drives (such as the drive for sex) and society's demands, and early childhood family experiences. Practitioners of this approach believe that sexual and aggressive impulses buried deep within the unconscious mind influence the way people think, feel, and behave.
Psychodynamic
The ___________ approach emphasizes the scientific study of observable behavioral responses and their environmental determinants. It focuses on an organism's visible behaviors, not thoughts or feelings.
Behavioral
The _________ approach emphasizes a person's positive qualities, the capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose one's destiny.
Humanistic
The _________ approach emphasizes the mental processes involved in knowing: how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems.
Cognitive
Some psychologists emphasize an __________ approach that uses evolutionary ideas such as adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors.
Evolutionary
Some psychologists examine behavior and mental processes through the ___________ approach, which is a focus on the body, especially the brain and nervous system.
Biological
The __________ approach examines the influences of social and cultural environments on behavior.
Sociocultural
Most of the studies psychologists publish in research journals follow the _______ ________, which may be summarized in these five steps:
Observing some phenomenon
Formulating hypotheses and predictions
Testing through empirical research
Drawing conclusions
Evaluating conclusions
Scientific Method
A ________ is anything that can change
Variable
A _______ is a broad idea or set of closely related ideas that attempts to explain observations. They seek to explain why certain things are as they are or why they have happened, and can be used to make predictions about future observations.
Theory
A _______ is a testable prediction that derives logically from a theory. A theory can generate many of these. If more and more _________ related to a theory turn out to be true, the theory gains in credibility.
Hypothesis
_______ research is interested in discovering relationships between variables.
Correlational.
The degree of relationship between two variables is expressed as a numerical value called a correlational coefficient, which is most commonly represented by the letter r. The correlation coefficient is a statistic that tells us two things about the relationship between two variables—its strength and its direction. The value of a correlation always falls between −1.00 and +1.00. The number or magnitude of the correlation tells us about the strength of the relationship. The closer the number is to ±1.00, the stronger the relationship. The sign (+ or −) tells us about the direction of the relationship between the variables. A positive sign means that as one variable increases, the other also increases, or as one decreases the other does as well. When variables are positively correlated, they change in the same direction. A negative sign means that as one variable increases, the other decreases. Negatively correlated variables change together but do so in the opposite direction. A zero correlation means that there is no systematic relationship between the variables.
__________ research involves finding out about the basic dimensions of some variable.
Descriptive
A _____ ______ is an in-depth look at a single individual.
Case study
A related method that is especially useful when information from many people is needed is a ________, or questionnaire, which presents a standard set of questions, or items, to obtain people's self-reported attitudes or beliefs about a particular topic.
Survey.
Surveys can measure only what people think about themselves. Furthermore, people do not always know the truth about themselves. If you were answering a survey that asked, "Are you a generous person?" how might your answer compare to that of a friend who is asked to make that same rating about you? One particular problem with surveys and interviews is the tendency of participants to answer questions in a way that will make them look good rather than in a way that communicates what they truly think or feel. Another challenge in survey construction is that when questionnaires are used to operationally define variables, it is crucial that the items precisely probe the specific topic of interest and not some other characteristic. The language used in surveys therefore must be clear and understandable if the responses are to reflect the participants' actual feelings.
An ________ is a data-gathering methodology that involves a standard set of questions asked in the same manner and order. For example, when doing research, you may do this instead of asking them to fill out a questionnaire.
Interview
The observation of behavior in a real-world setting.
Naturalistic observation
The soundness of the conclusions that a researcher draws from an experiment. In the realm of testing, the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.
Validity
The outcome; the factor that can change in an experiment in response to changes in the independent variable
Dependent variable
A manipulated experimental factor; the variable that the experimenter changes to see what its effects are.
Independent variable
Researchers' assignment of participants to groups by chance, to reduce the likelihood that an experiment's results will be due to preexisting differences between groups.
Random assignment
The brain's special capacity for change
Plasticity
The nerve cells that handle the information-processing function.
Neurons
Chemical substances that are stored in tiny sacs inside neuron's terminal buttons and are involved in transmitting information across the synaptic gap to the next neuron.
Neurotransmitters
The part of the neuron that contains the nucleus, which directs the manufacture of substances that the neuron needs for growth and maintenance.
Cell body
Treelike fibers projecting from a neuron, which receive information and orient it toward the neuron's cell body.
Dendrites
The part of the neuron that carries information away from the cell body toward other cells.
Axon
A layer of fat cells that encase and insulates most axons
Myelin sheath
The network of nerves that connects the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body
Peripheral nervous system
The network of nerves that connects to the brain and spinal cord
Central nervous system
The body system consisting of the sensory nerves, whose function is to convey information from the skin and muscles to the central nervous system about conditioned such as pain and temperature, and the motor nerves, whose function is to tell muscles what to do.
Somatic nervous system
The body system that takes messages to and from the body's internal organs, monitoring such processes as breathing, heart rate, and digestion
Autonomic nervous system
The part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body to mobilize it for action (fight or flight)
Sympathetic nervous system
The part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body
Parasympathetic nervous system
Located at the skull's rear, the lowest portion of the brain, consisting of the brainstem, medulla, cerebellum, and pons
Hindbrain
The stemlike brain area that includes much of the hindbrain. Basic life support functions; sleeping, eating, breathing, body temperature regulation. Injury to this area can kill you!
Brainstem
Associated with balance and fine motor movements
Cerebellum
Brain structures central to emotion, memory, and reward processing, and houses habits and memories.
The limbic system
The __________ is important for practiced movement
Cerebellum
The structure of the limbic system that has a special role in the storage of memories
Hippocampus
Involved in the discrimination of objects that are necessary for the organism's survival, such as appropriate food, mates, and social roles; Senses and interprets threats in surrounding environment.
Amygdala
The ________ monitors three pleasurable activities—eating, drinking, and sex and is a regulator for the body's internal state.
Hypothalamus
Part of the forebrain (outer layer) responsible for most complex mental functions, such as thinking and planning.
Cerebral cortex
The cerebrum is divided into left and right hemispheres. What does the RIGHT side of the brain control?
Movements on the LEFT side of the body, also language/ speech, logic, math.
The cerebrum is divided into left and right hemispheres. What does the LEFT side of the brain control?
Movements on the RIGHT side of the body, also spacial skills (space around us), music, and art
The brain, in addition to being divided into the left and right hemispheres, can also be divided into lobes. These 4 lobes are which?
Frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital.
Which lobe is associated with vision, containing the visual cortex?
The occipital (back) lobe (Left and right lobe, left vision is right lobe, right vision is left lobe).
Which lobe processes the sense of touch, containing the "sensory cortex"?
Parietal lobe, located on the sides of the head. Touching with right hand stimulates the left parietal lobe).
What are the frontal lobes associated with?
Control of movement; Portion of the cerebral cortex behind the forebrain, involved in personality, intelligence, and the control of voluntary muscles.
Which cortex processes information about body sensations and is located at the front of the parietal lobe?
The somatosensory cortex
Motor cortex controls what kind of movement?
Voluntary
The process of receiving stimulus energies from the external environment and transforming those energies into neural energy (the operation in sensation in which sensory receptors register information about the external environment and send it up to the brain for interpretation)
Sensation (Bottom-up processing)
The brain gives meaning to sensation through ________. _______ is the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information so that it makes sense, starts with cognitive processing in the brain. In top-down processing we begin with some sense of what is happening (the product of our experiences) and apply that framework to incoming information from the world.
Perception (Top-down processing)
The minimum amount of stimulus energy that a person can detect
Absolute threshold
The degree of difference that must exist between TWO stimuli before the difference is detected
Difference threshold
A change in the responsiveness of the sensory system based on the average level of surrounding stimulation
Sensory adaptation
Part of retina that are sensitive to light but not very useful for color vision (twilight vision)
Rods
Part of the retina that allow for color perception (day vision)
Cones
Theory stating that color is produced by three types of cone receptors in the retina that are particularly sensitive to different, but overlapping, wavelengths.
Trichromatic theory
Theory that states that cells in the visual system respond to red-green and blue-yellow colors; a given cell might be excited by red and inhibited by green, whereas another cell might be excited by yellow and inhibited by blue.
Opponent process theory
______ determines the sound wave's frequency, that is, the number of cycles (full ________) that pass through a point in a given time interval.
Wavelength
_____ is the perceptual experience of the frequency of a sound, whether it is high like a whistle or low like a bass horn. We perceive high-frequency sounds as having a high ______, and low-frequency sounds as having a low ______.
Pitch
Senses that provide information about movement, posture, and orientation.
Kinesthetic senses
Senses that provide information about balance and movement
Vestibular senses
The lining of the roof of the nasal cavity, containing a sheet of receptor cells for smell
Olfactory epithelium
Rounded bumps above the tongue's surface that contain the taste buds, the receptors for taste.
Papillae
The act of focusing on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring others
Selective attention
The recognition that objects are constant and unchanging even though sensory input about them is changing
Perceptual constancy
Psychoactive drugs that modify a persons perceptual experiences and produce visual images that are not real.
Hallucinogens
Psychoactive drugs that slow down mental and physical activity.
Depressants
Psychoactive drugs, including caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, and cocaine, that increase the central nervous system's activity.
Stimulants
The physiological need for a drug that causes unpleasant withdrawal symptoms such as physical pain and a craving for the drug when it is discontinued.
Physical Dependence
The strong desire to repeat the use of a drug for emotional reason reasons, such as a feeling of well-being and reduction of stress.
Psychological dependence
According to Freud, a reservoir of unacceptable feelings, wishes, and thoughts that are beyond conscious awareness.
Unconscious thought/ processing
An individual's awareness of external events and internal sensations under a condition of arousal, including awareness of the self and thoughts about one's experiences.
Consciousness
________ ________ are daily behavioral or physiological cycles. Daily ________ ________ involve the sleep/wake cycle, body temperature, blood pressure, and blood sugar level
Circadian rhythms
The disorder __________ involves the sudden, overpowering urge to sleep
Narcolepsy
______ ______ is a sleep disorder in which individuals stop breathing because the windpipe fails to open or because brain processes involved in respiration fail to work properly
Sleep apnea
A common sleep problem is _______, the inability to sleep. ______ can involve a problem in falling asleep, waking up during the night, or waking up too early
Insomnia
An active stage of sleep during which dreaming occurs
REM Sleep
In sleep stage __ drowsy sleep, jerking movement, very relaxed body
1
In stage __ muscle activity decreases, and the person is no longer consciously aware of the environment
2
Stages __ and __ of sleep are characterized by delta waves, the slowest and highest-amplitude brain waves during sleep.
3 and 4
Learning process in which an neutral stimulus becomes associated with an innately meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response
Classical conditioning
A ____ stimulus is a stimulus which initially produces no specific response other than focusing attention.
Neutral stiumulus
A stimulus that produces a response without prior learning
Unconditioned stimulus
An unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited by the unconditioned stimulus
Unconditioned response
A previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned stimulus
The learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after a conditioned stimulus-unconditioned stimulus pairing.
Conditioned response
