Key Terms

Avignon Papacy (1309-1377)

the “Babylonian Captivity” of the church; the time when Clement V moved the papal court to Avignon, an imperial city on the southeastern border of France

Battle of Crécy (1346)

the culmination of a series of victories for Edward lll against Normandy, ending with his seizing the port of Calais

Black Death

the bubonic plague that killed millions of Europeans in the 14th century

conciliar theory

the argument that general councils were superior in authority to the pope and represent the whole body of the faithful

Ultimate authority in the Catholic Church resided with general church councils rather than with the pope alone.

Council of Lyons (1274)

church council that proclaimed a reunion of the Eastern and Roman churches, which lasted for only seven years

A medieval church council that briefly reunited the Eastern and Western Churches and enacted reforms to strengthen papal authority.

Boyars

the Russian nobility

Curia

the papal government 

The administrative and governing body of the Catholic Church, centered in Rome. It includes the pope’s advisors, offices, and departments that help run church affairs.

Donatism

the heresy that taught the efficacy of the sacraments depended on the moral character of the clergy who administered them

An early Christian heresy claiming that the validity of sacraments depended on the moral purity of the clergy who administered them.

Edward lll (r.1327-1377)

english king; grandson of Philip the Fair of France, who many have started the Hundred Years’ War by asserting his claim to the French throne 

Estates General

the medieval French parliament that consisted of 3 separate groups, or “estates”: clergy, nobility, and commoners; last met in 1789 at the outbreak of the French Revolution

Giovanni Boccaccio 

an Italian who wrote a famous collection of tales of the plague, the Decameron (1358)

Great Schism

a split within the Catholic Church that lasted from 1378 to 1417; three men simultaneously claimed to be the true pope; driven by politics rather than any theological disagreement; the split ended with the Council of Constance (1414-1418)

Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453)

a great off-and-on conflict fought between England and France for control of territory and national identity  

Hussites

followers of John Huss (d.1415) who questioned Catholic teachings about the Eucharist 

indulgence 

remission of the temporal penalty of punishment in purgatory that remained after sins had been forgiven; the practice of selling pardons for unexpiated sins began under Clement Vl ( r. 1342-1352)

Jacquerie 

revolt of the French peasantry 

Lollards

followers of John Wycliffe (d.1384) who questioned the supremacy and privileges of the pope and the church hierarchy

Spiritual Franciscans

a group of radical followers of Saint Francis of Assisi, who devoted themselves to extreme poverty

tallie

the direct tax on the French peasantry

Unam Sanctam (1302) 

the bull issued by Pope Boniface VIII, which declared royal, temporal authority to be “subject” to the spiritual power of the church 

Declaring that salvation required submission to the pope’s spiritual authority, asserting extreme papal supremacy over secular rulers.

Alexander VI (1431-1503)

known as the Borgia pope; openly promoted the political careers of Cesare and Lucrezia Borgia, the children he had before he became pope

Renaissance pope notorious for corruption and nepotism, who used papal power to advance the political fortunes of the Borgia family.

chiaroscuro

the use of shading to enhance naturalness in painting and drawing

Christine de Pisan (1362-1434)

Italian-born noblewomen and writer whose most famous word, The Treasure of the City of Ladies, chronicles the great women of history 

Ciompi Revolt

a great uprising in 1378 of the poor in Florence, which established a chaotic four-year reign of Florentine classes 

condottieri

military brokers who furnished mercenary forces to the Italian states during the Renaissance

People or companies who arranged and supplied hired soldiers (mercenaries) to fight for different Italian city-states during the Renaissance.

conquistadores

“conquerors”; the Spanish conquered the New World

Cosimo de’ Medici (1466-1536)

Florentine banker and statesman; the first of the Medici political dynasty, who used his great wealth as a patron of leaning, the arts, and architecture 

Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536)

most famous northern humanist who looked to combine the classical ideals of humanity and civic virtue with Christian love and piety 

encomienda

the grant by the Spanish crown to a colonist of the labor of a specific number of Indians for a set period of time

Florentine Academy

an informal gathering of Florentine humanist devoted to reviving the words of Plato and the Neoplatonist

Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374)

the “father of humanism,” who celebrated Rome in his Letters to the Ancient Dead imaginary personal letters to Cicero, Livy, Vergil, and Horace

Italian poet and scholar, who revived classical learning and inspired the Renaissance.

Golden Bull

the agreement in 1356 to establish a seven-member electoral college of German princes to choose the Holy Roman Emperor 

A decree issued by HRE Charles IV that formalized process for electing the emperor. Named seven electors and established rules to prevent disputes over succession.

hacienda

a large landed esate in Spanish America

League of Venice

an alliance founded by Ferdinand of Argon in 1495 to counter the French in Italy

Alliance of Italian states, the Holy Roman Empire, and Spain formed to resist the expansion of France in Italy.

Lorenzo the Magnificent (1442-1492; r.1478-1492)

the grandson of Cosimo de’Medici and one of the most powerful patrons of the Renaissance; brought great splendor to the city of Florence and was the model for Machiavelli’s Prince

Mannerism

a style of art in the mid- to late sixteenth century that permitted artists to express their own “manner” or feeling in contrast 

Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494)

author of Oration on the Dignity of Man; gives the most famous Renaissance statement on the nature of humankind

Humans are not bound by a fixed nature and have the free will to choose their own destiny.

Platonism

philosophy of Plato that posits preexistent Ideal Forms of which all earthy things are imperfect models

Emphasizing abstract, perfect forms and the belief that true reality exists beyond the physical world.

studia humanitatis

during the Renaissance, a liberal arts program of study that embraced grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, philosophy, and politics

Treaty of Lodi (1545-1455)

a political alliance that brought Milan and Naples, traditional enemies, into a union with Florence

Act of Supremacy

the declaration by Parliament in 1534 that Henry Vlll, not the pope, was the head of the church in England

Declared Henry VIII the supreme head of the Church of England, formally breaking from the authority of the pope.

Act of Uniformity

imposed Thomas Cranmer’s Book of Common Prayer on all English churches in 1549

Required all people to attend Anglican church services and follow the same form of worship as set out in the Book (Elizabeth I).

Anabaptists

Protestants who insisted that only adult baptism conformed to Scripture

Antitrinitarians

a group of Protestants who were the strongest opponents of Calvin’s belief in original sin and predestination

A radical Reformation group that denied the Trinity and believed God was one, not three persons

Augsburg Confession

the definitive statement of Lutheran belief made in 1530

to the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V - attempted to show that their teachings were biblically based, not breaking aways from Christian faith.

benefices

ecclesiastical offices for which holders receive incomes from endowments in return for services preformed 

A church job that provided a salary or land income to its holder.

Charles V (1550-1558)

the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire from 1519 until stepping down from the throne in 1556

Struggled with Protestant resistance, dividing his empire between his son Philip II and his brother Ferdinand.

Council of Trent (1545-1563)

a general council of the church called by Pope Paul III to reassert church doctrine in response to the Protestant Reformation

A Catholic council that clarified doctrine, reformed abuses, and strengthened the Church in response to Protestantism.

Counter-Reformation

the movement within the Catholic Church to reform in reaction to the success of the Protestants

The Catholic Church’s movement to reform itself and oppose Protestantism during the 1500s–1600s.

Diet of Worms (1521)

an imperial diet of the Holy Roman Empire over which Charles V presided, in which Luther expressed his views and refused to recant

Martin Luther was called to defend his writings, refused to publicly withdraw his writings, declaring that he could not go against Scripture or his conscience.

electors

the seven German princes who had the right to elect the Holy Roman Emperor

indulgences

remission of the temporal penalty of punishment in purgatory that remained after sins had been sins began under Clement VI (r.1342-1352)

Church-issued pardons that reduced punishment for sins, often sold for money.

John Calvin (1509-1564)

the namesake of Calvinism who stressed the sovereignty of God’s will over all creation and the necessity for humanity to conform to it

Calvin was the founder of Calvinism, a Protestant movement emphasizing predestination (God has already decided each person’s eternal fate) and strict moral discipline.

John Eck (1509-1564)

a German Scholastic theologian and a defender of Catholicism during the Reformation; debated Luther in 1519

Debated Luther and defended the Catholic Church during the Reformation.

peasants’ revolt (1524-1525)

a rebellion of the German peasantry against their landlords, which Luther condemned

Inspired partly by the ideas of the Reformation, demanding economic and social reforms, such as lower taxes and an end to feudal oppression.

predestination

the doctrine that God had foreordained all souls to salvation (the “elect”) or damnation; especially associated with Calvinism

Calvinist belief that God has already decided each person’s eternal fate.

Reformation

the 16th-century religious movement that sought to reform the Roman Catholic Church and led to the establishment of Protestantism

Sparked by corruption in the Church, such as the sale of indulgences, and calls for a return to biblical authority.

Key figures: Martin Luther, John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli

Reformation Parliament (1519)

established that the English monarch must consult with and work through parliament whenever fundamental religious changes are made

English Parliament that passed laws cutting papal authority and enabling Henry VIII to break from Rome and establish the Church of England.

Spiritualists

a group of Protestant dissenters who believed that the Spirit of God was the only religious authority

Believed true religious authority came from an inner, personal communion with God rather than from churches, clergy, or formal doctrine.

St. Ignatius of Loyola

organized the Society of Jesus in the 1530s to counter the Reformation and win many Protestants back to the Catholic Church

Founder of the Jesuits who emphasized disciplined spirituality, education, and loyalty to the Catholic Church during the Counter-Reformation.

Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)

the leading figure of the Swiss Reformation; he opposed any belief that lacked literal support in Scripture

A Reformer who rejected Catholic rituals and believed the Eucharist was purely symbolic, helping launch the Protestant movement in Zurich.

baroque

a style of art marked by heavy and dramatic ornamentation and curved rather than straight lines that flourished between 1550 and 1750; especially associated with Catholic Counter-Reformation

Battle of Lepanto (1571)

a Holy League of Spain, Venice, Genoa, and the pope that defeated the Ottoman navy in the largest naval battle of the sixteenth century

A major naval victory in which a Christian Holy League defeated the Ottoman fleet, halting Ottoman expansion in the Mediterranean.

Cardinal Granvelle (1561)

hired to reorganize the Netherlands to tighten the control of the Spanish monarchy over the country

Philip II’s chief minister in the Netherlands whose attempts to centralize authority and enforce religious uniformity helped spark Dutch resistance.

Catholic League

the league formed by Henry of Guise in 1576 to enforce absolute religious unity in France

Congregationalists

put a group or assembly above any one individual and preferred an ecclesiastical polity that allowed each congregation to be autonomous, or self-governing

English Protestants who believed each local church should be fully self-governing, independent from any higher religious authority.

Counter-Reformation

the 16th-century reform movement in the Roman Catholic Church in reaction to the Protestant Reformation 

It strengthened doctrine, disciplined clergy, and fought the spread of Protestantism through the Council of Trent and new religious orders like the Jesuits.

Duke of Alba

Spanish general and governor sent by Philip ll into the Netherlands to suppress the revolt in 1567 and root out heretics

Edict of Nantes (1598)

a formal settlement announced by Henry IV to recognized minority religious rights in France  

Granted French Protestants (Huguenots) limited religious freedom and civil rights to end the French Wars of Religion.

Edict of Restitution (1629)

an attempt by Ferdinand ll, the Holy Roman Emperor, to reassert the Catholic safeguards of the Peace of Augsburg 

Imperial decree during the Thirty Years’ War that ordered all Catholic lands lost to Protestants since 1552 to be returned, greatly escalating tensions.

Gustavus Adolphus II

the Swedish king who led the Protestant forces to decisive victory at Breitenfeld in 1630

Huguenots

French Calvaninsts

Pacification of Ghent (1576)

the union against Spain of the 10 largely Catholic southern provinces with the seven largely Protestant northern provinces of the Netherlands

Alliance of the Dutch provinces that united to expel Spanish troops and demand political autonomy and religious toleration.

Peace of Beaulieu (1576)

peace in which Henry I of France granted religious and civil freedom to the Huguenots

politiques

rulers or people in positions of power who put the success and well-being of their states above all else

Presbyterians

Scottish Calvinists and English Protestants who advocated a national church composed of semiautonomous congregations governed by "presbyteries."

presbyters

meaning "elder" —people who directed the affairs of early Christian congregations

Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572)

the slaughter of thousands of Huguenots carried out during three days of coordinated attacks across France

Thirty-Nine Articles (1563)

the official statement of the beliefs of the Church of England that established a moderate form of Protestantism

Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)

the culmination and the most destructive of the European wars of religion, which took place in the Holy Roman Empire.

Treaty of Westphalia (1628)

peace that ended all hostilities within the Holy Roman Empire, whose terms shaped the map of northern Europe and established the concept of sovereign states

William of Orange

the leader of a movement for the independence of the Netherlands from Spain