Thomas Aquinas & J.L. Mackie

What was Aquinas's main philosophical project?

To reconcile Christian theology with reason, especially Aristotle's philosophy.

Which philosopher had the biggest influence on Aquinas?

Aristotle.

What is Aquinas's view of faith and reason?

Faith and reason are compatible, and reason can support and strengthen faith.

What is the difference between philosophy and theology for Aquinas?

Philosophy starts with sense experience and reasons toward God; theology starts with faith in God and revealed truths.

Does Aquinas think God's existence is self-evident to everyone?

No.

Does Aquinas think God's existence can be rationally demonstrated?

Yes.

What are Aquinas's five arguments for God's existence called?

The Five Ways.

(Aquinas) What do all Five Ways have in common?

They all use things we observe in the world to argue that God exists.

(Aquinas) What is a transcendent cause?

A cause that lies beyond the natural world.

(Aquinas) What is the First Way based on?

Change or "motion" in the world.

(Aquinas) What is the conclusion of the First Way?

There must be an Unmoved Mover, which is God.

(Aquinas) What is the Second Way based on?

Efficient causes.

(Aquinas) What is the conclusion of the Second Way?

There must be a first efficient cause, which is God.

(Aquinas) What is the Third Way based on?

The existence of possible/contingent beings that come into and go out of existence.

(Aquinas) What is the conclusion of the Third Way?

There must be a necessary being that ultimately explains the existence of other beings, which is God.

(Aquinas) What is the Fourth Way based on?

Different degrees of qualities such as goodness and truth.

(Aquinas) What is the Fifth Way based on?

The idea of design or governance in nature, suggesting an intelligent designer, God.

(Aquinas) What is the conclusion of the Fifth Way?

There must be an intelligent director of nature, which is God.

(Aquinas) Does Aquinas believe everything must have a cause?

No. God is the ultimate cause and does not need another cause.

(Aquinas) What is the main thing to remember about Aquinas's Five Ways?

They use observations about the world and reason to argue that God exists as the ultimate explanation or cause.

(Mackie) What is the problem of evil?

 If God is all-powerful and all-good, why does evil exist?

(Mackie) What are the three claims that create the problem of evil?

God is omnipotent, God is wholly good, and evil exists.

(Mackie) Why do these three claims seem contradictory?

If God is all-powerful and completely good, it seems He would be able and willing to eliminate evil.

(Mackie) What does omnipotent mean?

Having unlimited power.

(Mackie) What does it mean for good to be opposed to evil?

A good being would eliminate evil as far as it is able.

(Mackie) If God is wholly good and omnipotent, what should follow?

God should eliminate evil completely.

(Mackie) What would an adequate solution to the problem of evil have to do?

Give up or change at least one of the three constituent claims.

(Mackie) What are the four major responses to the problem of evil that Mackie examines?

Good cannot exist without evil; evil is necessary as a means to good; the universe is better with some evil; evil is due to human free will.

(Mackie) Why does Mackie reject the idea that good cannot exist without evil?

He argues that God can create good without needing evil to achieve it

(Mackie) Why does Mackie reject the idea that evil is necessary as a means to good?

He argues that God could create good without needing evil to achieve it.

(Mackie) What does the idea that the universe is better with some evil claim?

Some evil may produce greater goods, such as sympathy, heroism, or progress.

(Mackie) Why does Mackie reject the idea that the universe is better with some evil?

Some evil does not make the universe better because higher-order evil, such as cruelty and malevolence, remains unexplained and can lead to a regress.

(Mackie) What is the free-will defense?

Evil results from humans freely choosing wrong rather than directly from God.

(Mackie) What is Mackie's main objection to the free-will defense?

Why couldn't God create people who freely choose good every time?

(Mackie) Why does Mackie argue that free will does not necessarily require evil?

There is no obvious logical contradiction in people freely choosing good every time.

(Mackie) What is the problem with defining freedom as randomness?

Random choices may not count as meaningful free choices or valuable freedom.

(Mackie) What is the Paradox of Omnipotence?

It asks whether an omnipotent being can create something it cannot later control or create rules that bind itself.

(Mackie) Why is the Paradox of Omnipotence a problem?

if God can create something He cannot overcome, He is not all-powerful.

(Mackie) What is Mackie's overall conclusion about the problem of evil?

The traditional idea of an omnipotent, wholly good God cannot be consistently maintained with the existence of evil.

(Mackie) What is Mackie's basic argument about God and evil?

If God is all-powerful and wholly good, evil should not exist; evil exists; therefore, the traditional conception of God has a problem.