Anthropology Midterm 2 (Tuesday, October 28th)

What is the film Who Is Dayani Cristal about?

A 2013 documentary

It investigates the identity of an unidentified migrant who died in the Sonoran Desert near the U.S.-Mexico border

The film shows the human cost of migration, highlighting struggles migrants face, the dangers of the journey, and the impact on families

How does the film begin?

With the discovery of a deceased migrant in the Arizona desert. His body is badly decomposed from heat and desert conditions, making it difficult to identify. The only clue is a tattoo reading "Dayani Cristal."

Why is desert heat significant in migrant deaths?

Extreme temperatures quickly decompose bodies, destroy tissues, and erase identifying features like fingerprints, making forensic identification very challenging.

What is the significance of the tattoo "Dayani Cristal"?

It's the name of the deceased man's child. This tattoo symbolizes his devotion to his family and ultimately helps investigators identify him. Tattoos often carry personal, emotional meaning.

Who is Dr. Bruce Anderson and what does he do?

A physical anthropologist who studies human bones to learn identity, ancestry, and cause of death. At the Arizona border, he examines unidentified migrant bodies using tools like DNA tests, tattoos, and missing persons reports.

What is a physical anthropologist?

A scientist who studies human remains, especially bones, to determine identity, age, sex, ancestry, and cause of death. They help bring closure to families of missing persons.

What challenges do U.S. and Mexican governments face in identifying migrant corpses?

Many migrants carry no identification or fake documents. Desert conditions rapidly decompose bodies. Thousands of unidentified remains in Arizona morgues illustrate the scale of the crisis.

Who was the migrant with the tattoo, and where was he from?

Yohan, from Honduras. His journey north to the U.S. was motivated primarily by a desire to provide for his family, not gang violence or political issues.

How does Gael García Bernal help the audience understand migrants' experiences?

He retraces Yohan's journey north, crossing the Guatemala-Mexico border and traveling through Mexico

This includes experiencing dangers migrants face, such as riding La Bestia and navigating unsafe areas controlled by gangs

What is La Bestia?

A freight train in Mexico that migrants ride to travel north. Extremely dangerous because it's not meant for passengers, leading to falls, injuries, amputations, or attacks.

Why do migrants risk traveling on La Bestia despite its dangers?

Many have no safe alternative, limited money, and face pressure to reach the U.S. for family or economic survival. The journey is a combination of hope and extreme risk.

Who provides humanitarian aid to migrants along their journey?

Catholic priests and faith-based shelters provide food, water, shelter, and spiritual support. Religion plays a role in helping migrants endure hardships and dangers.

What does the film show about religion and faith among migrants?

Migrants often pray for safety before journeys. Faith-based shelters offer assistance, and priests help travelers survive. Faith is both practical and emotional support.

Why did Yohan leave Honduras?

To support his family and children. Poverty, lack of economic opportunity, and social challenges like low wages made migration the only viable option to provide for his loved ones.

What is forensic identification?

Scientific methods used to identify human remains, including DNA analysis, dental records, and tattoos. It helps link deceased migrants to their families and provide closure.

What is the Sonoran Desert, and why is it dangerous?

A desert spanning Arizona and Mexico, known for extreme heat, rough terrain, and deadly conditions for migrants crossing illegally. Many die from dehydration, heat stroke, or exposure.

What difficulties does the film show regarding identification of migrants?

Bodies are often badly decomposed, and migrants frequently carry false or no identification. Families remain in uncertainty without closure, showing the emotional cost of migration.

How does the film highlight family devotion?

Yohan's tattoo with his child's name shows love and motivation. His journey to the U.S. was to support his children, showing that family is central to many migrants' decisions.

How does the film critique immigration policies?

Policies that increase border enforcement often push migrants into more dangerous routes, raising the risk of death in remote areas like the desert.

How does the documentary end?

Yohan's body is returned to his family in Honduras, and his funeral illustrates the deep emotional impact on families when loved ones die during migration.

Review Question: Which border did Bernal cross in the film?

The Guatemala-Mexico border.

Review Question: What is the main theme emphasized in the film?

Family devotion and faith, highlighting human cost, religious support, and perseverance.

When and where was Papa Juan born, and what was his early life like?

Born August 31, 1921, in Guanajuato, Mexico

His father worked on a land parcel (ejido) — a communal farm granted after the Mexican Revolution (1910-1917)

where land was shared among community members

Papa Juan also worked this land as a boy, growing garbanzo beans, wheat, white corn, sorghum, and alfalfa

What did Papa Juan say about his relationship to farming, and what does it mean?

Quote: "We've always been people who work this local land (ejidatarios)."

Ejidatarios: farmers who work communal land

Shows lifelong dependence on agriculture, family continuity, and cultural identity

Farming was central to survival, culture, and family life

Who is in Papa Juan's family, and how does migration affect them?

Married to Mama Lina, with seven or more children

Three sons now work the ejido

He has 50 grandchildren and 20 great-grandchildren

Four children became legal permanent U.S. residents

Papa Juan and his wife have visas for visiting the U.S.

Where is Papa Juan's land, and what are the legal and historical rights associated with it?

Land is ~30 miles outside León

It is ejido land, guaranteed to landless men after the Mexican Revolution

Ejidos provided communal access for farming, but not individual ownership

Shows how the Revolution redistributed land to peasants, but also why many still sought additional income in the U.S. because farming alone often wasn't enough

Why didn't Papa Juan migrate to the U.S. in 1942?

Rumor that men migrating could be drafted into World War II to replace soldiers who had died

Shows how global events (like war) influence migration decisions

Illustrates early risks of cross-border labor migration

When and how did Papa Juan first migrate to the U.S.?

In 1949, crossed undocumented (without legal permission)

Undocumented migration: entering a country without legal authorization; not a crime, but lacks government permission

Reflects early patterns of Mexican migration, where economic necessity outweighed legal risk

What work did Papa Juan do in the U.S., and how much was he paid?

Jobs: picking lettuce, tomatoes, cotton, watering alfalfa, washing dishes

Paid 40 cents/hour, American workers earned 50 cents/hour

Later watered alfalfa at night for 50 cents/hour

In Arkansas, cotton picking paid 3 cents/pound; sometimes cheated on payment (e.g., carried 6-foot sacks)

Shows harsh labor conditions, exploitation, and wage discrimination

Where did Papa Juan travel for work, and why did he?

Migrated to Joaquin Valley, California, also worked cotton in Arkansas and Texas

Highlights migration networks—workers moved where employers needed labor

How did Papa Juan describe the physical demands of his work?

He said he was "very strong," reflecting the grueling physical labor of early migrant farm work

Example: lifting 6-foot cotton sacks, working long hours with low pay

Demonstrates how migrants were exploited for cheap labor but relied on work to support families and ejidos in Mexico

What did Papa Juan say about U.S. recruiters in 2008, and what does it reveal?

In 2008, while arguments about immigration filled American politics, Papa Juan spoke in an interview in his small Mexican town

He explained that recruiters from the United States had recently come there

These recruiters were connected to U.S. businesses, and they came specifically to hire Mexican workers

They were even sponsoring temporary work visas—legal papers that allow someone to work in the U.S. for a set period of time

This is important because it shows a contradiction: at the very moment when U.S. citizens were complaining about immigration, U.S. employers were still actively trying to bring Mexican workers north

This leads to what Gomberg-Munoz calls conditions of interdependence

What are conditions of interdependence?

Interdependence means that two countries or groups rely on each other

The U.S. and Mexico have become linked through history, politics, and economics in ways that keep migration happening

What is migration and why do humans migrate?

Migration = people moving from one place to another to live or work

Humans have always migrated — even 10,000+ years ago — for food, safety, or better opportunities

After farming was invented, people started living in settled communities (villages and cities)

But people still moved if they faced poverty, war, or if better resources and jobs were elsewhere

What are the main types of migration?

Labor migration: Moving mainly for work or wages

International labor migration: Crossing into another country for work

Undocumented migration: Moving without legal permission (sometimes called "illegal migration," but scholars say "undocumented" is better because "illegal" makes it sound like the person is a criminal, not just their action)

What is the "paradox of globalization"?

Globalization means countries are connected by trade and business

Goods, money, and jobs move freely across borders, but people themselves are restricted

This is a contradiction: the U.S. economy often depends on Mexican labor, but at the same time, U.S. laws make it difficult or criminal to migrate

How did migration work before Europeans came to the Americas?

Before Europeans, borders were not fixed like today

Boundaries were about political control and community ties, not lines on a map

Cities like Teotihuacán in Mexico had entire neighborhoods for immigrants, showing migration was normal

The Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán, had bridges and canals but wasn't "closed off" like modern borders

How were Indigenous societies in Mexico different from those in what is now the U.S.?

In Mexico, societies like the Aztecs, Maya, and Toltecs had big centralized cities with governments, buildings, and canals

In the U.S., Indigenous groups often lived in chiefdoms (smaller communities led by one chief)

Expansion was about who paid tribute (food, labor, or goods) rather than fixed borders

What happened when Europeans colonized the Americas?

Colonization (1500s) brought:

Diseases that killed millions of Indigenous people.

Wars and forced labor that destroyed communities.

New names for land: Spain = "New Spain," England = "New England."

Indigenous people were often forced into weak or enslaved positions under colonizers

How did independence wars change the map of the Americas?

In the 1700s-1800s, revolutions created countries like the U.S., Mexico, and Peru

At first, Mexico was bigger than the U.S. (it included today's Southwest)

But after the Mexican-American War (1846-1848), the U.S. took California, Texas, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and more

About 75,000-100,000 Mexicans already lived there — they became U.S. residents overnight without moving

What is "uneven development" and why is it important for migration?

Uneven development = some regions grow wealthy while others become poorer

In Mexico, President Porfirio Díaz (1876-1911) modernized the country, but mostly for foreign investors (like U.S. businesses).

Peasants lost their farmland to giant plantations

Machines replaced workers in farming

Cheap U.S. goods destroyed local Mexican craft jobs

Result: many Mexicans were pushed into poverty and later migrated

How did the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) affect migration?

The Revolution started because peasants were poor, jobless, and landless

Many fled north

About 200,000 Mexicans migrated to the U.S. during this time to escape violence and hardship

Why did U.S. employers recruit Mexicans in the early 1900s?

Other immigrants were blocked by racist laws (like the Chinese Exclusion Act, 1882)

But Mexicans were not restricted, and U.S. farms and factories needed workers

Recruiters used el enganche ("the hook") — they promised good wages, but workers often ended up trapped in bad jobs with debt, almost like indentured servants

What jobs did Mexican migrants do in the 1920s?

75% of California farmworkers were Mexican

Many worked in Texas construction

In Chicago, they worked in railroads, steel, and meatpacking

Stereotypes spread — Mexicans were described as "docile" and "suited for stoop labor" (hard farm work)

These racist ideas allowed employers to pay them less and put them in segregated neighborhoods

How did the Great Depression (1929-1939) affect Mexican migrants?

Millions of U.S. workers lost jobs

Mexican workers were blamed and targeted

The U.S. deported or pressured 400,000 Mexicans to leave — even U.S.-born children of Mexican parents

In Mexico, President Lázaro Cárdenas (1934-1940) tried to fix inequality by giving peasants communal land (ejidos) and nationalizing industries like oil

Migration slowed during this time

What was the Bracero Program (1942-1964)?

A U.S.-Mexico program during WWII to bring Mexican men to work in U.S. farms and railroads

Nearly 5 million contracts were signed

It built long-term migration traditions in Mexico

It also boosted undocumented migration, because the official program was too limited, so many workers crossed without papers instead

What was Operation Wetback (1954)?

A U.S. campaign that deported thousands of undocumented Mexicans

The name comes from a racist slur

Historians say it wasn't meant to truly stop migration — it was meant to push workers back into the Bracero Program, keeping labor cheap but controlled

What happened after the Bracero Program ended in 1965?

The U.S. introduced quotas (limits)

At first, 120,000 Mexicans could get visas per year

Then it dropped to 20,000

But U.S. employers still wanted workers, and Mexicans still needed jobs

So undocumented migration grew a lot in the 1970s

What was NAFTA (1994) and its effects?

NAFTA = North American Free Trade Agreement (U.S., Mexico, Canada)

It ended most tariffs (import taxes)

But it hurt Mexican farmers: cheap U.S. corn (heavily subsidized) flooded the market

Small farmers couldn't compete and lost livelihoods

Many moved to border factories (maquiladoras) or migrated to the U.S

What were U.S. border enforcement programs in the 1990s?

Operation Hold-the-Line (1993, Texas)

Operation Gatekeeper (1994, California)

Operation Safeguard (1994, Arizona)

They built fences, hired more Border Patrol, and forced migrants into dangerous desert crossings

Did stronger border enforcement stop migration?

No. Instead, it made crossings more dangerous

Migrants stopped going back and forth seasonally

Many stayed in the U.S. permanently because crossing multiple times was too risky

What do we know about undocumented migration in the 2000s?

By early 2000s:

90% of undocumented Mexican migrants were men.

About 95% of undocumented men in the U.S. had jobs

This proves migration wasn't random — it was tied directly to U.S. demand for cheap labor

Where did Chuy grow up and what was notable about his early work?

Chuy grew up in León, Mexico, known for its leather industry

He started working at 12 in leather shops, learning to cut and craft belts and boots

By high school graduation, he could make belts and boots but not the final stitching

He earned ~1,200 pesos/week (~$100 USD), a strong income for a teen, so he didn't feel pressure to migrate

Why did Chuy decide to migrate to the U.S.?

Chuy went on a trip with his neighbor Mateo in 1999

He wasn't motivated by poverty but by adventure and the chance to earn extra money

His plan was to go north, work for a year, and return home

What was Chuy's experience crossing the U.S.-Mexico border?

Chuy traveled with coyotes through the desert, walking in single file to hide footprints

He faced dehydration, extreme heat, and the risk of Border Patrol detection

How did Chuy's life begin in the U.S.?

After crossing, Chuy reunited with coyotes and traveled to Chicago

He started working at a fine-dining restaurant, Il Vino, as a busboy

Life in Chicago allowed him to earn higher wages and support his family, marking the start of his new life under the radar

What is León, Mexico like, and why do many people migrate from there?

León is a large industrial city famous for leather goods

Wages in local factories were low (~$200/week for 60 hours)

Many families had at least one member living in the U.S., making migration normal

Staying behind meant long work hours and barely covering basic needs

What are the two main paths for young men in León?

1) Stay in Mexico: work in leather factories, construction, or farming for low pay and long hours

2) Migrate to the U.S.: earn higher wages, support family, gain social respect, and access better opportunities

What are remittances and why are they important?

Remittances are money sent home by migrants

They allow families to improve homes, pay for education, buy property, and plan for a better future

Without them, families often remain at subsistence level

How do families treat migration as an investment?

Families see migration as a way to achieve long-term goals

One member works in the U.S. to send money home, helping buy property, expand homes, pay debts, and fund education, improving the family's overall future security

Who are coyotes and why are they important?

Coyotes are guides or smugglers who help migrants cross the border illegally

They charge ~$2,000-3,000 per person

They organize the group, guide them through the desert, and erase footprints to avoid detection

What are some risks of crossing the border?

Risks include dehydration, heatstroke, hypothermia, injury, drowning, being abandoned by coyotes, Border Patrol detection, deportation, and financial loss if a crossing fails

Crossing is dangerous and expensive

What jobs did the Lions take in Chicago?

Most worked at Il Vino, a fine-dining restaurant

Jobs included bussing tables, washing dishes, prepping food, and handling heavy tasks

Even low-skill work paid far more than factory jobs in León

How did Chicago jobs improve life for the Lions?

They earned higher wages, sent remittances home, and could save money

Even entry-level jobs allowed them to support families, fund education, and improve homes — opportunities impossible in León

How did employers view undocumented workers like the Lions?

Some initially opposed undocumented workers but changed their minds after seeing their work ethic and reliability

Restaurants relied on them, giving undocumented migrants a paradoxical role: needed but legally invisible

What is a "legal contradiction" in the context of undocumented migrants?

A legal contradiction occurs when migrants are needed by the economy but denied legal rights

They work, pay taxes, and contribute, yet the law considers them illegal, creating a tension between law and practice

Why was migration considered a family decision for the Lions?

Moving to the U.S. wasn't just personal — families planned it together

Their earnings (remittances) funded education, housing, and better living conditions

Migration was a family project to improve long-term security, not just an individual adventure

How did Chicago's policies affect undocumented life?

As a "sanctuary city," Chicago limited police involvement in immigration enforcement

This allowed migrants to live under the radar, work, and participate in society more safely than in cities with stricter enforcement

What daily risks did the Lions face?

They could be deported during traffic stops, workplace raids, or encounters with authorities

They avoided driving without licenses, public fights, and jobs with high immigration scrutiny to reduce risk

How did social networks help migrants adapt in Chicago?

When the Lions arrived in Chicago, they didn't know the city well

They relied on friends and other migrants (often people from León who had been there longer) to show them the ropes

For example: where to find a job, how to get housing, how to send money safely back home

These networks also gave emotional support — someone to talk to when life was hard or lonely

Without these connections, newcomers would struggle to survive in a new city, especially while living "under the radar" as undocumented workers

How did technology help maintain family ties?

Being far from home was emotionally difficult. The Lions used phones, webcams, and later social media (Facebook, WhatsApp) to stay in touch

This made it easier to keep up relationships, see milestones like children growing up, and feel less isolated — which helped make the long separation more bearable

How did migration affect social status in León?

In León, a man who went north and sent money home became respected

People admired him for taking risks, sacrificing for family, and helping siblings get education or build homes

Men who didn't migrate were sometimes seen as "settlers," people who didn't take risks, and might get less respect.

So migration wasn't just about money — it also improved social reputation

What is the overall "push and pull" system described in the chapter?

Migration is shaped by two forces:

Push factors: things that make people want to leave León, like low wages, long hours, and few opportunities.

Pull factors: things that attract people to the U.S., like higher wages, jobs that allow saving, and the chance to support family.

This system shows that migration isn't random — it's a strategic decision based on improving family life and escaping economic limits

It's about opportunity, not just adventure or desperation

What is the Muxe community in Juchitán, Oaxaca?

The Muxe community comprises individuals assigned male at birth who adopt aspects of feminine gender roles, including dress, behavior, and social standing, within the Zapotec culture of Juchitán

How does the Muxe identity differ from transgender identities?

While both challenge traditional gender norms, Muxes are culturally embedded in Zapotec traditions and do not necessarily seek to transition into women; they occupy a distinct gender category

What does the term "Muxe" signify in Zapotec language?

"Muxe" is derived from the Zapotec word for "woman," reflecting their feminine roles and attributes

How are Muxes perceived in Juchitán society?

Muxes are accepted and respected, often seen as embodying both the strength of men and the sensitivity of women, contributing to high self-esteem within the community

Can you provide an example of a Muxe pursuing personal aspirations?

One Muxe aims to open a garment shop, showcasing entrepreneurial spirit and the desire to contribute to the local economy

How do Muxes contribute to their families and communities?

They often take on caregiving roles, assist in household tasks, and participate in cultural traditions, reinforcing their importance in maintaining social cohesion

What challenges have Muxes faced historically?

Initially marginalized, Muxes have worked towards gaining acceptance and respect, overcoming discrimination through resilience and cultural advocacy

How does the Muxe identity influence gender perceptions in Juchitán?

The recognition of a third gender challenges binary gender norms, promoting a more inclusive understanding of gender roles in the community

What impact has the Muxe community had on broader Mexican society?

Their visibility and cultural contributions have sparked conversations about gender diversity, influencing perceptions and policies regarding gender identity in Mexico

How does Williams critique Western views of gender?

Western Judeo-Christian thought assumes only two genders—male and female—and considers anything else abnormal

This overlooks human diversity worldwide

Many Native societies recognized additional gender roles, like berdaches, who were respected socially and spiritually, showing that strict male/female categories are a cultural idea, not a universal truth

What is a berdache (Two-Spirit) and what roles did they have?

A berdache was typically a biological male who did not follow traditional male roles

They combined masculine and feminine traits, performed ceremonial and economic duties and often acted as mediators between men and women

Their identity was spiritually valued, making them respected members of society

Why is "Two-Spirit" preferred over "berdache"?

"Berdache" comes from a French term meaning "male prostitute" and is considered offensive

Indigenous communities now use "Two-Spirit" to highlight the spiritual and cultural significance of gender-diverse roles,

emphasizing that these identities are part of natural and sacred social systems, not European-imposed labels

How did Native myths support the berdache role?

Myths, like the Navajo story of Turquoise Boy and White Shell Girl portrayed berdaches as divinely created to fulfill important social and spiritual roles

They invented tools, performed ceremonial duties, and mediated between men and women, showing that their existence was purposeful and beneficial to the community

How were children identified as future berdaches?

Children often showed tendencies around ages 9-12

Tribes used ceremonies to confirm this, such as offering boys a choice between male and female tools or observing behavior in ritual dances

Their actions revealed their spiritual inclination, showing the role was guided by spirits rather than forced by adults

How were vision quests connected to berdache identity?

Vision quests involved fasting, isolation, and prayer to receive spiritual guidance

A vision could reveal a child's destiny, including becoming a berdache

These visions were considered divine instructions, showing that being a Two-Spirit was spiritually ordained, not a personal choice, and protecting the person from social criticism

What is the significance of spiritual identity over physical sex in Native cultures?

Native religions valued the spirit above biological sex

Gender was seen as a social and spiritual role rather than a fixed biological trait

This allowed people to combine traits or assume roles outside traditional male/female categories, showing that spiritual identity, not anatomy, determined social and sacred responsibilities

How did berdaches maintain balance in their societies?

Berdaches combined masculine and feminine traits, making them mediators between men and women, and sometimes between the physical and spiritual worlds

They could perform women's work, lead ceremonies, create art, and contribute economically, helping maintain harmony in both social and spiritual systems

How did myths protect berdache identity?

Myths warned that anyone trying to force a berdache to abandon their role would face disaster

For example, Mandan and northern Plains stories describe spirits punishing interference

These stories framed berdaches as sacred, spiritually protected, and naturally part of the community, reinforcing respect for difference

How did Native American views of the universe support acceptance of berdaches?

Native cultures saw everything—humans, animals, plants, rocks, and water—as having spirit

Social roles, including gender, reflected spiritual order

Differences like berdaches were seen as sacred and necessary for balance

This worldview encouraged respect, connectedness, and ecological awareness, integrating Two-Spirits into both society and spirituality

Who is Sarah Rose Huckman and why is she important?

Sarah Rose Huckman is a transgender rights activist and public speaker from the University of New Hampshire

Assigned male at birth, she has always identified as female

Her activism gained attention when she fought to compete in high school sports according to her gender identity, challenging the New Hampshire Interscholastic Athletic Association's (NHIAA) policies that only allowed transgender students who had undergone gender reassignment surgery to compete on gender-aligned teams

She worked with her parents, NHIAA, and LGBTQ advocacy groups to allow local schools to determine participation rules, demonstrating how gender identity intersects with law, policy, and social acceptance

What is CO-MADRES and why is it important?

CO-MADRES (Committee of Mothers and Relatives of the Disappeared) was formed in 1977 during El Salvador's Civil War to demand information about missing relatives.

The group, primarily mothers, transformed traditional maternal roles into political resistance, advocating for human rights, women's rights, and gender justice under extreme danger.

It illustrates political activism and the intersection of gender and politics

How did Alicia Panameño de García contribute to understanding gender and conflict?

Alicia Panameño de García was a CO-MADRES member

She testified about systematic rape and gender-based violence during El Salvador's civil war

Her testimony highlighted that rape and gendered violence were not just random acts but were used as deliberate political tools to terrorize communities, showing the intersection of gender, power, and conflict

What did David Murray's research reveal about LGBTQ+ refugees in Canada?

David Murray studied LGBTQ+ refugees seeking asylum in Canada

He found that these refugees often had to perform or exaggerate expected gender and sexual behaviors to meet Western definitions of "authentic" LGBTQ+ identities

This revealed that even well-meaning legal systems can enforce cultural stereotypes and that identity is often judged according to dominant social norms

How do anthropologists define gender?

Gender is the set of social and cultural expectations assigned to people based on perceived sex

It encompasses behaviors, roles, and identities that vary by society and historical context

Unlike biological sex, gender is learned, performed, and fluid

For example, in the U.S., boys are often encouraged to be competitive and girls nurturing, but these roles are culturally constructed, not biologically determined

How is sex defined in Anthropology?

Sex refers to biological differences between males and females, including chromosomes, reproductive organs, and hormones

While commonly thought of as binary, biological sex is fluid evidenced by intersex individuals who have a combination of male and female characteristics

Anthropologists distinguish sex from gender to analyze how culture interprets biological differences

What is gender studies in anthropology?

Gender studies examine how gender identities and expressions shape and are shaped by social life

affecting access to resources, rights, and opportunities

Over the past 50 years, it has become a central subfield of anthropology, exploring gender in sexuality, health, family, religion, politics, sports, and personal identity

The field emphasizes that gender is culturally constructed, variable, and socially significant

What is gender identity?

Gender identity is a person's internal understanding of themselves as male, female, both, neither, or somewhere on the spectrum

It may align with their sex assigned at birth (cisgender) or not (transgender, nonbinary)