Napoleon's rise to power

His early life in Causica

He was born in 1769 to parents who were Causican patriots and were determined to rebel the French army and spent his childhood hating France due to Causica becoming a French colony in 1768. His family were minor Causican aristocrats but struggled with 8 children and believed France could offer more opportunities. His dad in particular took advantage of these - submitted to the French & became an aristocrat in Versailles & used his position to secure Napoleon a scholarship to a French school. Despite his dear love for his mother, he held a strong resentment against his father for abandoning his heritage.

His early personal life

He was sent to boarding school in France despite barely being able to speak French & still viewing himself as Causican. He believed he was a genius as a teenager and became lonely, mopey and bored among the sons of French nobles who he was surrounded by & who he also hated for looking down on him. He however was a very good reader and read classics like Rousseau & Locke.

His early career in the military

He was promoted to the royal military academy in Paris at 15 & became an apprentice soldier at 16, however he remained unable to reach top positions in the army due his status as only a minor noble. He worked in artillery which was viewed as the cutting edge of the French army & served in the army far from Paris when the revolution began.

His career during the revolution

He was 20 when the revolution began and welcomed it as good news - he hoped for the abolishment of privilege & hierarchies & to become a part of the new world of the revolution. He returned to Causica at 23 & hoped to liberate it along with Paoli (leader of war against France & his childhood hero) - but Paoli didn’t trust him & still wanted Causican independence while Napoleon now saw it as part of France. He became the leader of a faction against Paoli & fought against him but lost & got his whole family declared traitors & banished from Causica.

His influence in Toulon

Napoleon returned to France amidst the Terror & the French war with Europe and became reinstated in the army as an artillery captain. He was sent to Toulon in response to the federalist uprisings & orchestrated it’s recapture - promoting him to Brigadier General & gaining him more recognition as a good soldier. Overall, he hated the chaos of the Terror but was very much in support of Robespierre - was good friends with his brother.

His career after the fall of Robespierre

His career had taken a dip due to his association with Robespierre, and while he wasn’t executed, many disliked him. He became desperate for promotion and frequented the salons run by the influential women of Paris, hoping to gain influence, but lacked the charisma or social skills to do so. However after his performance in the Rising of Vendemiaire, he was promoted to a full general in the army.

Josephine’s background

She was born in 1763 on the Caribbean island of Martinique & moved to France in 1779. She had previously married Alexander Beauharnais & had 2 children with him but he was executed during the Terror. She had affairs with several men from the French high society, including Barras who was the one of the most powerful in the new government.

Napoleon’s marriage to Josephine

He fell madly in love with her and begun to visit her frequently & tried to persuade her to marry him. She was not attracted to him at all - said she was repulsed by him - but agreed to marry him in 1796 due to a lack of opportunities for her other than getting a new husband & her awareness that her looks were fading so she needed a ‘protector’. She was 32 & he was 26 when they married.

The Italy Campaign - Napoleon’s original position

He was given the opportunity to lead a French army in Italy in 1796, however his orders were simply to keep the Austrians busy in Italy as not much action would happen there while the main campaigns in Germany and the Alps were headed by major generals (Hoche & Moreau and Jourdan). The French troops in Italy were second rate - poorly paid & equipped & demoralised (only had around 7000 men) and many expected Napoleon to achieve little due to the belief that he was too young & inexperienced & only there due to his new wife’s connections. Italy was dominated by Austria at this point - still a member of the first coalition against France.

The Italy Campaign - Napoleon’ s efforts with the army

He arranged for the troops to be paid in silver & acted as an inspirational leader, boosting their moral and confidence to fight for their country. This was also boosted by the rapid victories they achieved in the Montenotte campaign against Piedmont - Sardinia (Austrian allies) in April. However, propaganda spread that Napoleon had completely transformed the army into a courageous fighting force - exaggerating his efforts.

The Italy Campaign - outcomes of Napoleon’s efforts

His victories against Piedmont-Sardinia caused it to later drop out of the First Coalition through the Armistice of Cherasco - creating one less enemy for France. This then boosted Napoleon & France and provided it with Nice & Savoy as well as supplies, munitions & a guarantee of free passage through Piedmont for French troops.

The Italy Campaign - The Battle of Lodi

Napoleon went on to face the Austrians in may in the Battle of Lodi in May where his bravery was publicised. he managed to occupy Milan & pillaged many art treasures that he could sell to bring fortune to France. Tales of his exploits persuaded the Pope & King of Naples to both sign rapid treaties with the French & pay indemnities to avoid a potential French takeover.

The Italy Campaign - Napoleon’s seizing of artworks

Seizing artworks from the country became the norm for his army as they swept across Italy & Europe. He even established the first official military division dedicated to the seizure of cultural objects. These acquisitions boosted Napoleon’s reputation as they filled the Louvre & the personal collections of officers & the Pope.

The Italy campaign - further military success

Napoleon continued his run of successes after Lodi & advanced into Mantua, Verona, Legnago & Pecchiera. He captured three of these fortresses & despite the Austrians sending 4 successive armies against him as he besieged the city, Napoleon won at Arcola, Rivoli & caused Mantua to fall - showing his skills as a military tactician. By May 1797, his forces were occupying Venice.

The Italy Campaign - Napoleon’s reorganisation of Italy

After these victories, Napoleon begun to abuse the power he’d been given & created a new French republic out of his Italian conquests. After Lodi, he established a client state to the south of the Po River (Cispadane Republic) & one to the north (Transpadane Republic) - these later merged to create the Cisalpine Republic of June 1797. He set the capital in Milan & created a directory with ministers & a 2 chamber legislature of his own nominees. He also set up the Ligurian Republic in June 1797 which had it’s own republican constitution & directory.

The Italy Campaign - Napoleon’s invasion of Austria

He then advanced into the Austrian Empire & took his armies as far as Leoben & dictated terms to the Austrian commander in chief, the Archduke Charles, in April 1797. The peace terms formed the basis for the Treaty of Compo Formio of 17th October 1797 & Napoleon negotiated them without seeking the authority of the Directory.

The Italy Campaign - The terms of Treaty of Compo Formio

It included: the recognition of French control over the former Austrian Netherlands, Austrian acceptance of the French Cisalpine & Ligurian Republics in return for recognition of Austrian influence over part of the Venetian Republic, recognition of the French Rhine frontier & French possession of several islands in the Mediterranean & Venetian islands in the Adriatic.

Fears over Napoleon after Italy

He returned to Paris a hero after his campaign due to his use of tactics to defeat the Austrians. However many members of the Directory had mixed feelings about him due to the fear of him becoming a dictator, after he had acted outside their command in Italy.

The origins of the Egyptian Campaign

Napoleon came up with the idea that his next big mission could be to invade Egypt due to the possibilities of military, scientific & historical gains it held for France. He viewed it as a good idea because: it would be a stepping stone to a war with India/an attempt to distract the British (had control of India), an attack on British trade could be launched, it would be easy glory, it could establish France in the Middle East & he wanted to follow in the footsteps of Alexander the Great (his hero).

The Directory’s opinion on the campaign

They viewed it as possibly over ambitious and were reluctant to take lots of resources and men away from France. It was also an opportunity for Napoleon to die which wouldn’t be helpful to France. However, if it was successful it would be of huge benefit to France & Napoleon held great public support. It was also a way to get Napoleon away from France & if he did die he would no longer be an issue.

The Egyptian Campaign - Egypt

Napoleon set off in May 1798 with 35000 men in the Army of the Orient. He took Malta on the way & reached Egypt by July. The French advanced & defeated the Egyptians in July in the Battle of the Pyramids, however British Navy Admiral Nelson destroyed the French fleet in August, cutting them off from getting home. Napoleon continued, despite the British also creating a blockade, & subdued the Egyptians like an ‘absolute ruler’ (he took over & wrote laws & constitutions like in Italy) - however he faced repeated nationalist uprisings.

The Egyptian Campaign - Syria

Napoleon ventured north into Syria with 13000 men & took Jaffa in March 1799. However in Jaffa he shot 200 prisoners, executed the Turkish governor & allowed his soldiers two days of slaughter & rape. In May he was forced to retreat back to Cairo after he’d abandoned a siege of Acre due to him underestimating the resilience of the defenders & the ability of the British to help the Turks.

The war of the Second Coalition (1799)

Peace had been maintained in Europe after the Italy campaign but when Napoleon expelled the knights of St Jaha from Malta in 1798 he angered Tsar Paul of Russia. Austria took advantage of him being in Egypt to come together with Britain, Portugal, Russia, the Ottoman Empire & the German & Italian states in a new anti French coalition. They mounted several invasions in 1799. 

Why Napoleon left Egypt

He received reports that Italy & Germany were on the French borders & of the other victories being won by the Second Coalition. He left the bulk of his army in 1799 to rush back to France, despite plague spreading through many of his men. He arrived in France in October 1799, before news of his failures in Egypt & Syria had reached them & after the enemies had already been repelled. He was again greeted as a saviour & was able to quickly take power due to the weak position of the Directory - his failures didn’t come out until he was already in charge.

Success of the Egyptian Campaign from a non military perspective

It was great for France in terms of historic & scientific exploration & exploitation - Napoleon brought 167 leading scientists over with him as well as historians & botanists. A vast amount of artefacts were collected and set to Europe including the Rosetta Stone.

Napoleon’s early reputation - military leadership

He rapidly established himself as an intelligent & military strategist who won highly calculated victories. He harnessed speed & manoeuvrability. He improved army organisation in Italy & developed self contained army corps of infantry, artillery & cavalry rather than defining soldiers by type. He used this to move his troops along different routes & deceive the enemy. He kept reserve corps back under his command for if he needed them & he developed the idea of the forced march to speedily take his men across large distances & surprise the enemy.

Napoleon’s early reputation - military leadership continued

He also had his troops ‘live off the land’ rather than wait for supply wagons which improved speed, allowing him to take up superior battle positions. He aimed to constantly mislead his enemies by luring them into weaker positions & attacking them where they least expected.

Napoleon’s early reputation - personality

He deliberately cultivated his men through speeches & leading by example & took pains to ensure they were well fed, paid & supplied. He was respected for his charm & capacity for hard work - known to sometimes work 18-20 hours a day - & was driven by his young age & recent marriage. He also had the benefit of commanding officers being able to be promoted by talent, meaning his soldiers believed in what they were fighting for more in hopes of promotion. His greatest ability was being able to adjust to circumstances - respond to situations correctly according to need & exploit whatever opportunities he had.

Napoleon’s early reputation - his faults

He was however very over ambitious & took large seemingly impossible risks in the hopes that they would pay off. He also had little understanding of naval matters & was ignorant towards understanding the Egyptian/Syrian weather & climate, leading to him losing men. He also displayed many dictatorial traits of power however these were mostly conditioned by the time he lived in.

The Coup of Brumaire - Abbe Sieyes’ involvement & initial ideas

He begun to plan for a coup in 1799 as he had never supported the 1795 constitution & had refused to serve in the Directory. He accepted a position as a Director in 1799 when he realised the Directory’s failure to maintain stability & helped in the Coup of Prarial by calling on the army to enforce changes of personnel. He initially recruited General Joubert to lead the army & the coup, however he was killed in battle in August 1799. Napoleon’s return from Egypt in October provided an opportunity for Sieyes.

The Coup of Brumaire - Sieyes’ plan

He got Napoleon involved with his coup & begun to bribe council members to arrange for Napoleon’s brother Lucien to become the President of the Council of the 5 Hundred on the 23rd October. Sieyes also deployed troops around Paris & established a plan to persuade the Directors to resign & persuade the 2 councils to appoint a commission to draw a new constitution.

The Coup of Brumaire - 18 Brumaire (9 November) - Napoleon, Lucien & Murat

In the morning, members of the Council of Ancients who were sympathetic to the coup warned their colleagues of a Jacobin conspiracy to overthrow them. Lucien persuaded the 5 Hundred of the same thing & both assemblies were moved from Paris to the palace of Saint Cloud. Napoleon ensured their safety & took control of the Parisian troops while his trusted commander Joachim Murat moved 6000 men into position around Saint Cloud.

The Coup of Brumaire - 18 Brumaire (9th November) - Sieyes & Ducos

Both Sieyes & Ducos resigned as directors & Barras was also persuaded to step down as he was put under pressure by Talleyrand - another plotter. This virtually destroyed the government as the councils continued to meet but the remaining directors were put under house arrest.

The Coup of Brumaire - 19 Brumaire (10th November) - Napoleon’s failure

By now most deputies had realised they were facing an attempted coup by the army rather than being protected from a Jacobin rebellion. Things went badly for Napoleon when he lost his patience & stormed into the Council of Ancients which wasn’t planned by Sieyes. He failed to make an impression on the Ancients & moved to the Council of the 5 Hundred where he was met with threats. 

The Coup of Brumaire - 19 Brumaire (10th November) - how Lucien saved it

He got the palace guards to intervene in an attempt to help Napoleon which caused many deputies to leave & the remaining ones to be forcibly expelled by Murat grenadiers. He also managed to find 3 members of the Council of the Ancients who were willing to obey him & appoint 3 consuls to run the government until there could be a new constitution. These were Sieyes, Napoleon & Ducos but Napoleon commanded the greatest authority - having been severely underestimated by Sieyes.

Set up of the Constitution of Year VIII - the stages of voting

The 1st stage of voting was open to all Frenchmen over 21 which was 6 million citizens but they were required to have lived in the same house for a year. They voted for 10% of themselves to form a communal list. The 2nd stage of voting was then open to the communal list of 600000 citizens & the members selected 10% of themselves to form a departmental list. The 3rd stage was open to the departmental list of 60000 citizens who selected 10% to form the notables. The 6000 notables chosen were used by the Senate to select deputies for the legislature.

Set up of the Constitution of Year VIII - the legislature

This was made up of 2 bodies - the Tribunate & the Legislative Body. The Tribunate was the lower chamber & had 100 members who could discuss legislation but not vote on it. The Legislative Body was the upper chamber & had 300 members who could vote on legislature but not discuss it.

Set up of the Constitution of Year VIII - the Council of State & the Senate

The Council of State was chosen by the First Consul & acted as an advisory body by nominating officials and preparing draft legislation. The Senate had 80 members who were nominated by the First Consul & appointed for life. It had a duty to ‘protect the constitution’ & advised the First Consul on draft legislation. It selected deputies for the legislature & could override the decisions made by it through the Senatus Consultum (decree that wasn’t referred to the Tribunate or Legislative Body).

Set up of the Constitution of Year VIII - the First Consul

This was the top position in the government & the person in it shared the power with two other consuls but held the most authority. They all held office for 10 years & appointed ministers. The First Consul acted as the director of policy & the initiator of all legislation. 

The consuls of the new constitution

In December 1799, Jean-Jacques Regis de Cambaceres & Charles-Francois Lebrun were appointed as the 2nd & 3rd consuls aside Napoleon due to the resignation of Sieyes & Ducos to the Senate. They were both incredibly loyal to Napoleon.

Strengths of the new constitution

The First Consul held great power & could appoint & dismiss ministers, make legislative proposals & control foreign policy, making it clear who was in charge unlike in the Directory. It also provided ‘top down’ control to ensure stability & order rather than constantly changing the members & the First Consul could bypass opposition in the Legislative Body using the Senatus Consultum.

Weaknesses of the new constitution

It was the 1st one of the revolutionary period not to be accompanied by a declaration of rights & whilst all men were given the vote, this impact was diluted through the various rounds of voting. Only 600o were eligible for the legislature of 400 out of an electorate of 6 million & this couldn’t even initiate legislation. A fifth of the members in the legislature were to be replaced annually but there was no clear process in place for how they’d be chosen. The system of how the Tribunate & the Legislative Body worked also kept in place the problem of the Directory of those who discussed the legislation not actually being able to pass it.