Sociolinguistics and Discourse Analysis

Sociolinguistics

describes language as it is being used, it's descriptive, not prescriptive

Dialect

refers to a variety language with distinct features in syntax, morphology, vocabulary and pronunciation

Accent

refers to variation at the level of pronunciation only

Over prestige

When one way of speaking (usually a formal, standard, dialect) is seen as more prestigious, or better, in society. People who speak this way are often thought to have higher social status or education

Example

• Standard English (formal, proper version of the language) is often seen as having over prestige

• people who speak with a clear, educated accent are often considered to be of higher status

Covert prestige

when a non-standard dialect or way of speaking (often less formal) is seen as cool, respectable or valued within a specific group. People who use this language are seen as part of a certain community, and this can give them social power within that group

Example

• speaking in a local dialect or with a distinctive accent in a specific community might have covert prestige

• for example, someone who uses slang or a regional accent might be seen as more authentic or respected in certain social circles, even if it’s not viewed as ‘proper’ by society as a whole

Marker

A linguistic feature (an accent, word choice, or grammar) that signals what group someone belongs to.

Example;

• “Y’all"“ in southern American English is a marker of Southern identity.

• if you use a specific slang word or accent, people can guess where you’re from or what social group you might be a part

Stereotype

A generalized belief/exaggeration about how a group speaks.

Example

• people who speak with a British accent are often seen as “posh” or wealthy

  • stereotype: People who use slang are sometimes seen as “uneducated” or “laid-back” (even though this isn’t true for everyday)

Indication

When someone’s speech style or language choices give a clue or signal about something about them, like their age, gender, social, or identity.

A clue from someone’s speech about their identity or background.

Style shifting

Changing how you talk based on who you’re talking to, the situation and how formal/informal the setting is

Labov’ New York City social dialect surveys (1963)

study based on social shifting and social class. Examining how New Yorkers pronounced the “r” sound in stores catering to different social classes (Saks, Macy’s, Klein’s). Results showed that higher social classes pronounced “r” more, while lower classes dropped it. Middle-class speakers style-shifted the most, adjusting their speech in formal vs. casual situations. This research demonstrated that language reflects social identity, prestige, and context awareness

Eckert’s ‘Third Wave’ Variation Studies (2012)

focuses on class and region to how individuals use language to express identity and social meaning. Instead of just reflecting background, speech actively creates social belonging. Her research showed that language choices signal personality, style, and group membership, proving that variation is not just about class but about identity construction

Discourse analysis

the study of how language is used in real life - in coversations, texts, speeches, social media. Looks at how words, sentences, tone, social context

• helps understands how language shapes communication, identity, and power

Discourse analysis central questions

who says what to whom under what conditions (contexts) (to inform, be, do)

Example

A doctor and friend addresses patient and friend in clinic by saying: “You look tired”

Intertextuality

describes the fact that texts refer to other texts

Instance vs. Discourse

Instance → a single sentence, phrase, or small piece of communication

• Wow, it's hot today! - one sentence, so it’s an instance of language

• Hello!

Discourse → a bigger, connected use of language (like a conversation, speech, or a whole text

• A: Wow, it’s hot today!

  B: Yeah, it feels like summer already

  A: I hope it cools down by evening - a whole conversation or a story, so it’s a discourse

Discourse

Why is it a discourse

✅ Connectedness → The sentences must be linked in meaning, not just random.
✅ Context → The passage should have a clear topic or theme.
✅ Cohesion → Look for transition words (e.g., so, because, then, however) that connect ideas.
✅ Coherence → The passage should make sense as a whole and not just be a mix of sentences.
✅ Purpose & Function → What is the goal of the passage? (e.g., storytelling, argument, explanation).

"This passage is a discourse because the sentences are connected in meaning (cohesion), follow a clear topic (coherence), and have a purpose. The ideas flow logically rather than being isolated instances of language."

By using these terms (connectedness, cohesion, coherence, and purpose), you can easily explain why a passage is a discourse every time!

Why is it an instance?

❌ Lack of Connection → It’s just one sentence or phrase without links to other ideas.
❌ No Context → It doesn’t provide a clear background or follow a bigger theme.
❌ No Cohesion → There are no transition words or logical flow between sentences.
❌ Isolated Meaning → It stands alone and doesn’t rely on other sentences to make sense.

"This is an instance because it is a single, isolated sentence (or phrase) that does not connect to a larger structure. It lacks cohesion, coherence, and a developed context, meaning it does not function as a full discourse."

Abstract (what’s the story about?)

A short introduction that grabs attention

Something crazy happened to me today!

Orientation (who, when, where?)

who’s involved, where, and when the story happens

I was at the mall with my best friend yesterday

Complication (what happened?)

the main event or problem in the story

Suddenly, a fire alarm started ringing, and everyone panicked!

Evaluation (why is this important?)

the speaker’s opinion or emotional reaction

I was so scared, and people were running everywhere!

Resolution (how did it end, the solution)

how the problem was solved or how the story ended

It turned out to be a false alarm, and everything went back to normal

Coda (why does it matter?)

a closing remark that connects the story to real life or the present moment

That was the craziest thing that’s ever happened to me!

Interdiscursivity

When different types of communication (discourses) mix together

• A politician using business terms in a speech about healthcare ("We need a strong investment in public health")—mixing economic and political discourse.

Manifest intertextuality

When a text directly includes or refers to another text

• A news article quoting a speech from the president or a YouTuber using a famous movie line ("I'll be back!").

Three shifting styles

People shift their speaking style based on context:

✅ Casual Style – Used with friends & family (e.g., "Hey, what's up?").
✅ Formal Style – Used in professional or serious settings (e.g., "Good afternoon, everyone.").
✅ Consultative Style – In semi-formal situations, like talking to a doctor or teacher (e.g., "Could you please explain that again?").

What is style-shifting

1. a variation in an individual’s speech depending on social context

Task design (How a task is structured)

The way a task or activity is created to influence how people communicate.

• Example: A teacher assigning a debate about climate change → students will use persuasive language because of how the task is designed

Audience design

Speakers change how they talk based on their audience.

• Example: A comedian changes their jokes depending on whether the audience is young or old.

Speaker design

Speakers change their style to shape how others see them.

• Example: A politician using slang to seem relatable or a professor using complex words to sound knowledgeable.