Exam 2 Study Guide for Psychological and Brain Sciences

Attachment

Emotional bond influencing relationships and development.

Identity Development

Formation of personal identity over the lifespan.

Temperament

Innate personality traits exhibited by infants.

Harlow's Studies

Research revealing importance of attachment in monkeys.

Attachment Styles

Patterns of attachment influencing relationships in children.

secure, resistant, avoidant, disorganized/disorientated

Strange Situation Test

Assessment of attachment styles developed by Ainsworth.

Personal Identity

Self-concept shaped by experiences and social interactions.

Erik Erikson

Psychologist known for stages of psychosocial development.

Gender Roles

Societal expectations for behavior based on gender.

Psychological Issues of Death

Emotional and mental challenges related to dying.

Sensation

Detection of stimuli through sensory organs.

Perception

Interpretation of sensory information by the brain.

Sensory Processing Stages

Translate the message --> identifying message components --> create a stable interpretation from the message

Light Waves

Electromagnetic waves perceived as brightness and color.

Sound Waves

Vibrations perceived as pitch and volume.

Sclera

white part of the eye

Iris

Colored part of the eye

Pupil

the hole (black in iris) which light enters the eye

Pupillary Reflex

Automatic response regulating light entering the eye.

Rods

Photoreceptors for low-light vision.

Cones

Photoreceptors for color and detail vision.

Blind Spot

Area without photoreceptors causing vision gap.

Visual Pathway

Route from retina to primary visual cortex.

Color Vision Theories

Trichromatic and opponent-process theories explain color perception.

Bottom-Up Processing

Data-driven perception starting from sensory input.

Top-Down Processing

Perception influenced by prior knowledge and expectations.

Gestalt Principles

Rules explaining how we organize visual information.

Monocular Depth Cues

Depth perception using one eye's input.

Binocular Depth Cues

Depth perception using both eyes' input.

Linear Perspective

Depth cue based on converging lines.

Retinal Disparity

Difference in images between two eyes.

Convergence

Eye muscle adjustment for depth perception.

Ear Parts

Structures responsible for hearing and balance.

Hair Cells

Sensory cells converting sound waves to signals.

Pitch Identification

Determined by frequency and place theories.

Anterior Stream

Carries information related to sound location.

Posterior Stream

Carries information related to sound identification.

Thermoreceptors

Sensory receptors for temperature detection.

Tactile Sensations

Touch perceptions guiding motor responses.

Pain Processing

Involves nociceptors and gate-control theory.

Taste Qualities

Six types signaling nutritional value and safety.

Attention Purpose

Focus on relevant stimuli, ignoring distractions.

Automaticity

Unconscious performance of learned tasks.

Visual Neglect

Inability to attend to one side of space.

ADHD Symptoms

Inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.

Sleep Stages

Stage W, Stage 1, Stage 2, Stage 3, REM

Wakefulness (Stage W)

Alpha and beta activity

Stage 1

Non-REM sleep, consists of theta activity, transition between sleep and weakfulness

Stage 2

Non-REM sleep, contains sleep spindles and K complexes

Stage 3

Non-REM sleep, consiste of delta activity, deepest stage of sleep

REM

REM sleep, consists of theta & beta activity, desynchronized, dreams

Circadian Rhythm

Biological clock regulating sleep-wake cycles.

Sleep Study Methods

Techniques like EEG to monitor brain activity.

Synchrony

Simultaneous brain activity during sleep stages.

REM Sleep

Stage associated with vivid dreaming, eyes move rapidly back & forth, muscle paralysis

Sleep Theories

Restoration and evolutionary theories explain sleep functions.

REM Sleep Impairments

Lack leads to cognitive and emotional issues.

REM Rebound

Increased REM sleep after deprivation.

REM Function Theories

Freud, Activation-Synthesis, Problem-solving, Evolutionary perspectives.

Sleep Disorders

Categories include insomnia and parasomnias.

Dyssomnias

problems connected with the amount, timing, and quality of sleep

parasomnias

abnormal disturbances that occur during sleep

insomnia

chronic condition marked by difficulty starting or maintaining

secondary insomnia

inability to due to another condition (pain, substance abuse, psychological or neurological condition)

hypersomnia

chronic condition marked by too much sleep

- linked to genetic factors, infectious diseases, and sleep apnea

narcolepsy

rare sleep disorder characterized by sudden extreme sleepiness

- dogs can have it

nightmares

frightening and anxiety-arousing dreams that occur primarily during the REM stage of sleep

night terrors

terrifying experiences in which the sleeper awakens suddenly in an extreme state of panic

- tend to go away with age

sleepwalking

in which the sleeper arises during sleep and wanders about

- mainly occurs in childhood

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals transmitting signals in the nervous system.

endogenous

having an internal origin (neruotransmitters)

excogenous

having an external origin (drugs)

Psychoactive Drugs

Substances altering brain function and behavior.

depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens

Agonists

Drugs enhancing neurotransmitter effects.

Antagonists

Drugs blocking neurotransmitter effects.

Substance Dependence

Compulsive use despite negative consequences.

Withdrawal Symptoms

Physical and psychological effects from substance cessation.

Mental Set

Mindset affecting responses to stimuli.

Hypnosis

Altered state of consciousness with suggestibility.

Meditation

Focused mental practice promoting relaxation and awareness.

Learning

Process of acquiring new knowledge or skills.

Habituation

Decreased response to repeated stimuli.

Sensitization

Increased response to a stimulus after exposure.

Non-Associative Learning

Learning without forming associations between stimuli.

Associative Learning

Learning through connections between events.

Classical Conditioning

Learning through association, discovered by Pavlov.

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

stimulus that automatically leads to an observable response prior to any training

- dog food

Unconditioned response (UR)

observable response that is produced automatically, prior to training, on presentation of a US

- drooling in response to dog food

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

the neutral stimulus that is paired with the US during classical conditioning

- ringing of the bell

Conditioned response (CR)

acquired response that is produced by the conditioned stimulus in anticipation of the unconditioned stimulus

- salivating in response by the bell

Second-Order Conditioning

Conditioning where a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new stimulus.

Conditioned Inhibition

Learning to inhibit a response to a conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus Generalization

Responding similarly to similar stimuli.

Stimulus Discrimination

Differentiating between similar stimuli.

Extinction

Diminished response when reinforcement is removed.

Spontaneous Recovery

Reappearance of extinguished response after a pause.

Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by favorable outcomes are repeated.

Operant Conditioning

Learning through consequences, developed by Skinner.

Reinforcement

Increasing behavior through rewards.

positive reinforcement

presenting an event after a response increases the strength of the response