Modernity, Postmodernity and Globalisation

What is the Enlightenment Project?

The idea that society can progress through the use of human reason.

What are characteristics of modern society?

• The nation-state

• Capitalism

• Rationality, science and technology.

• Individualism

What is the nation-state?

A bounded territory ruled by a powerful centralised state, whose population usually shares the same language and culture.

What acts as a key source of identity in modern society?

The nation-state

What is capitalism?

An economic system based on private ownership, the means of production and the use of wage labourers.

Who described the economic system of modern society as organised capitalism?

Lash and Urry (1987; 1994)

How did Lash and Urry (1987; 1994) describe the economic system in modern society?

• They described it as organised capitalism.

• The nation-state is key in regulating capitalism.

• Capitalism is structured according to Fordist principles.

What is globalisation?

The increasing interconnectedness of people across national boundaries.

What is the result of globalistion?

We live in one interdependent global village where all our lives are shaped by a global framework.

What four changes have led to us living in a global village?

1. Technological changes.

2. Economic changes.

3. Political changes.

4. Changes in culture and identity.

What are the impacts of technological changes? [3]

• We can go across continents within hours and communicate with others around the world instantly.

• This has led to a time-space compression.

• It has created risks on a global scale, e.g. climate change.

What are the impacts of economic changes?

• Economic activities take place within a set of global networks → increased interconnectedness.

• We now have a digital economy.

• This has led to a 24/7 economy.

• Both these new economies contribute to the risk society.

• Transnational Companies drive globalisation.

What is the digital economy?

Economic activity that uses electronic communication and digital technologies to provide goods and services.

What is the 24/7 economy?

An economic system where continuous production, consumption, and services are driven by industrial efficiency, technological advancements, and the pursuit of maximum productivity.

What is the relationship between TNCs and all commodities?

The largest 500 TNCs account for half of the total value of commodities produced in the world.

Who said that the owners of TNCs form a separate global capitalist class?

Sklair (2003)

What did Sklair (2003) say about TNCs?

The owners of TNCs now form a separate global capitalist class.

Who said that we now live in a borderless world where the nation-state has less power?

Ohmae (1994)

What did Ohmae (1994) say about political changes?

• They said we now live in a borderless world where TNCs and consumers have more economic power than national governments.

• This is because the state can’t regulate the activities of large capitalist enterprises.

Who described these political changes as disorganised capitalism?

Lash and Urry (1987; 1994)

How did Lash and Urry (1987; 1994) describe the political changes?

As disorganised capitalism.

What are the impacts of changes in culture and identity?

• Globalisation makes it hard for cultures to be distinct from one another.

• We now have a global culture where Western media spreads its culture to the rest of the world.

• Economic integration contributes to this by promoting the same tastes everywhere.

• Increased migration → a shared culture.

• Globalisation undermines traditional sources of identity, e.g. class.

Why does globalisation undermine class as a source of identity?

The shift of manufacturing jobs from the West to developing countries → a decline in working-class communities and identity.

What is economic integration?

The process by which different countries or regions reduce trade barriers and coordinate economic policies to create a more unified and interconnected market.

What are some of the characteristics of postmodernism?

• Instability

• Fragmentation

• Media saturation

• Interconnectedness

What is anti-foundationalism?

The idea that there is no one objective truth in society.

What are the two implications of anti-foundationalism?

• The Enlightenment Project is no longer relevant to improving society.

• All-encompassing theories that claim to have the truth about society are just meta-narratives,

What is an example of a meta-narrative failing to improve society?

Marxism was used to create a totalitarian, oppressive state that promoted their version of the truth.

What view do postmodernists take about truth?

• They take a relativist view, which believes that beliefs are true for those who hold them.

• No one has special access to the truth and all beliefs should be equally celebrated.

What does Lyotard (1992) say about knowledge in postmodern scoiety?

• Knowledge is just a series of language games or ways of seeing the world.

• This pluralism is preferrable to the monopoly meta-narratives had in modern society.

• Postmodernity allows previously marginalised groups to be heard.

Who said that pluralism in postmodern society is preferable to the monopoly meta-narratives had in modern society?

Lyotard (1992)

What did Baudrillard (1983) say about postmodern society?

• Society is no longer based on the production of goods, but the buying and selling of knowledge in the form of images.

• These images bear no physicality or real meaning.

• This is what he calls simulacra.

• Our inability to distinguish these signs from reality is hyper-reality.

Who talked about simulacra and hyper-reality?

Baudrillard (1983)

According to Baudrillard (1983), what is the main source of simulacra?

Television

What do postmodernists say about culture, identity and politics?

• The media’s role in creating hyper-reality → drastic changes in culture, identity and politics.

• The ever-present nature of media → endless stream of knowledge, images and values.

• This leads to culture being fragmented and unstable.

• This leads to a lack of value consensus and a lack of faith in meta-narratives.

• Identities become destabilised because they are linked to our consumption habits rather than our ascribed status.

Why is Baudrillard (1983) pessimistic about postmodernism?

• In our media saturated we can’t distinguish between images and reality.

• This means we can no longer improve society if we can’t grasp society.

How do Philo and Miller (2001) criticise postmodernists? [4]

• It ignores power and inequality at play in the media and how it promotes the ruling class ideology.

• It overlooks how poverty stops people from constructing their identities through consumption.

• They are wrong in claiming that people can’t distinguish between the media and reality.

• It is sometimes wrong to claim that all views are equally valid, e.g. Nazism.

Who criticises postmodernists for overlooking inequalities in society?

Philo and Miller (2001)

How do Best and Kellner (1991) criticise postmodernism?

It is a weak theory as it fails to explain how these features of postmodernism came about.

Who criticises postmodernists for failing to explain how these thoeries came about?

Best and Kellner (1991)

How does Harvey (1989) criticise postmodernists?

• He argues that politics do make a difference and that knowledge can solve people’s problems.

• Although many theories can’t guarantee truth, they are at least close to it.

What society does Giddens say we are in?

Late or high modernity.

Who argues that we are in a late modern society?

Giddens

What are the characteristics of late modern society according to Giddens? [4]

• Rapid change on a global scale.

• Disembedding.

• Increased individualism.

• Reflexivity.

What is disembedding?

When interactions are physically removed from a situation but still connected through virtual means

Why are people more individualistic?

Tradition no longer tells us how to act.

What is a result of us becoming more individualistic?

• We also have to become more reflexive.

• This constant re-evaluation of ideas and theories makes nothing permanent.

• This makes culture and identity very unstable.

What is reflexivitiy?

When we constantly monitor, reflect on and modify our actions in light of information about the possible risks and opportunities that they might involve.

What does Giddens say about risk?

• In late modern society, we face a lot of high-consequence risks.

• Many of these risks are manufactured, rather than natural risks.

• Giddens rejects the postmodernist view that we can’t prevent and improve the likelihood of these risks.

What does Beck (1992) say about risk? [4]

• He believes that reason and logic can be used to improve society.

• Risks are now man-made, rather than natural.

• Risk consciousness is now a central part of our culture.

• Our knowledge about these risks come from the media, which can distort out views.

What does Beck (1992) say about individualisastion?

• Due to a decline in tradition, we have to constantly reflect on how we act and take these risks into account.

• This is what he calls reflexive modernisation.

• This risk conciousness becomes a central part of our culture.

What does Beck say about improving society?

• Unlike postmodernists, Beck believes that rationality and logic can help overcome these risks.

  • With reflexivity and political action, we can help minimise the risks we face.

What is a key evaluation point of late modernity?

Not everyone has the option to evaluate their risks and shape their life accordingly.

How does Rustin (1994) criticise late modernists?

He argues that capitalism is the source of risk, not technology.

Who argues that capitalism, not technology, is the source of risk?

Rustin (1994)

How does Hirst (1993) criticise late modernists?

He rejects the idea that change can be brought about because the movements that could do so are too fragmented to challenge capitalism.

Who says that change can’t be brought about because political movements are too fragmented?

Hirst (1993)

According to Marxists, what has led to postmodernity?

Late stage capitalism.

What does Harvey (1989) say about capitalism and postmodernity?

• He sees capitalism as a system that’s constantly changing in order to maximise profits.

• Capitalism is prone to periodic crisis of profitability → major changes in its organisation.

• E.g. postmodernity was triggered by the capitalist crisis of the 1970s.

What is a regime of accumilation?

A way of achieving profitability.

According to Harvey, what regime of accumulation do we have in postmodern society?

Flexibile accumulation or post-Fordism.

Describe flexible accumulation?

• Flexible accumulation involves the use of technology, an expanded service and finance sector, job security and the ability for workers to be flexible and meet their employers needs.

• This allows the production of customised, niche products instead of standardised products for mass markets.

How does flexible accumulation → one of the characteristics of postmodernity?

• This change → characteristics of postmodernity, such as diversity, choice and instability.

• Production of customised products → promotes cultural diversity.

• The ability to easily switch the creation of one product → constant shifts in fashion.

What does Jameson (1986) say about capitalism and postmodernism?

Postmodernism represents a more developed form of capitalism as it commodifies all aspects of life.

Who said that capitalism in postmodernism commodifies all aspects of life?

Jameson (1986)

What else did Harvey (1989) say developed capitalism led to?

The compression of time and space due to the commodification of culture, worldwide financial markets and new technology.

Who said that developed capitalism leads to the compression of time and space?

Harvey (1989)

What did Harvey and Jameson say about politics and identity in postmodern society?

• It has weakened the working class and socialist movement.

• This is due to a variety of rival movements emerging.

• They hope that these movements can form a rainbow alliance to create change.

Who said that rival movements need to form a rainbow alliance to create change?

Harvey and Jameson

According to Best and Kellner (1991), how do Marxists and postmodernists differ? [2]

• They retain faith in Marxism (a structural theory) in explaining these changes.

• They argue that the goal of the Enlightenment Projects can be achieved.