Chapter 9 Study Guide — Social Psychology Social

PSY 121

Social Cognition*

Appearance & Attraction

• Attractiveness Bias (Physical Appearance)

• Halo Effect

• Proximity

• Similarity

• Reciprocity

Attractiveness Bias

First impressions are often influenced by physical appearance

Halo Effect

Attractive people are often assumed to be smarter, kinder, or more trustworthy

Proximity

We like people we encounter frequently (mere exposure effect)

Similarity

We are attracted to people similar to us in attitudes, interests, values

Reciprocity

We like those who like us

Stereotype

A belief or cognition about a group (e.g., “all teenagers are irresponsible”)

Prejudice

A negative attitude feeling toward a group (e.g., dislike, fear)

Discrimination

A negative behavior toward a group (e.g., refusing to hire someone)

Attribution*

How we explain people’s behavior

Types of Attributions

Internal (dispositional) and External (situational)

Internal (dispositional)

the cause is something about the person (traits, personality).

External (situational)

the cause is something about the environment or situation

Fundamental Attribution Error

We overestimate internal causes (“they’re rude”) and underestimate situational causes (“they’re having a bad day”) when explaining others’ behavio

Attitudes*

Cognitive Dissonance

Psychological discomfort caused when attitudes and behaviors conflict

People are motivated to reduce dissonance by:

• Changing their attitude

• Changing their behavior

• Adding a justification

Example: “Smoking is bad” + “I smoke” → dissonance → “Everyone dies anyway.”

Connection Between Attitudes and Actions

• Attitudes influence actions

• Behavior shapes attitudes

  • Especially true when behavior is voluntary, small steps, or repeated.

Foot-in-the-Door Technique*

• Starting with a small request increases the likelihood that a person will agree to a larger request later

• Works due to self-perception and consistency

Social Norms & Social Influence*

Conformity

Changing behavior to match group norms

Influences of conformity:

• Desire to be liked (normative social influence)

• Desire to be correct (informational social influence)

Bystander Effect

The more people present, the less likely anyone is to help in an emergency

Diffusion of Responsibility

• When in a group, individuals feel less personal responsibility to act

• A major cause of the bystander effect

Pluralistic Ignorance

• People assume others are interpreting a situation differently, so they follow along
  

• Example: “No one else thinks it’s an emergency, so I guess it’s fine.”

Deindividuation

• Loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations

• Leads to impulsive or deviant behavior
  

• Example: riots, mob behavior, anonymity online

Group Processes*

Social Facilitation and Social Inhibition

• Social facilitation: Performance improves on simple/well-learned tasks when others are present

• Social inhibition: Performance worsens on difficult or new tasks when being watched

Group Processes*

Social Loafing

• Individuals exert less effort when working in a group compared to working alone.

• Happens when responsibility is not clearly assigned

Group Processes*

Groupthink

• Group prioritizes harmony over realistic decision-making

• Symptoms:

  • Illusion of invulnerability

  • Suppression of dissent

  • Pressure for conformity
    

• Leads to poor decisions because alternative ideas are not considered.

Important Studies to Know*

The Asch Conformity Experiment

• Participants were asked to match line lengths.
  

• 75% conformed at least once when confederates gave wrong answers.
  

• Demonstrated strong pressure to conform even when the group is clearly wrong.

Important Studies to Know*

The Stanford Prison “Experiment” (Zimbardo)

• Randomly assigned college students as guards or prisoners in mock prison.
  

• Guards became abusive; prisoners showed emotional distress.
  

• Illustrated:

  • Power of roles

  • Deindividuation

  • Situational power over personality

• Not ethical and not replicable today.

Important Studies to Know*

Stanley Milgram Study on Obedience

• Participants instructed to deliver shocks to a “learner” for wrong answers.

• 65% delivered the maximum shock despite discomfort.

• Demonstrated:

  • Strong obedience to authority

  • Situational factors influence harmful behavior

Prosocial Behavior

• Helping others without expecting anything in return

• Influenced by empathy, mood, norms, and personal values

Aggression

• Any behavior intended to harm another person

• Influenced by biological, environmental, and social factors

Social Roles

• Expectations for behavior in a social position (e.g., “teacher,” “student,” “parent”)

• People often conform to roles quickly (e.g., Stanford Prison Study)

Persuasion

• Central route: logical, evidence-based

• Peripheral route: influenced by attractiveness, charisma, superficial cues

Self-Serving Bias

• Success = personal ability

• Failure = external causes

Just-World Hypothesis

• Belief that people get what they deserve (“blaming the victim”)

Group Polarization

• Group discussion strengthens members’ initial opinions

• Example: Mild opinion → extreme opinion after discussion

Scapegoat Theory

• Prejudice offers an outlet for anger by blaming another group