BIO 121 Exam 4 MSU

What is recombinant DNA?

genes from 2 different sources - combined in vitro into same molecule

What is genetic engineering?

manipulation of genes for practical purposes

What is biotechnology?

When did it start?

manipulation of organisms or their components to make useful products

Agricultural revolution

What is meant by gene cloning?

ability to prepare multiple identical copies of gene-sized pieces of DNA

What are the goals of gene cloning?

How begin?

-be to produce a protein product

-prepare many copies of the gene itself

-use bacteria to move thing around

-begin with insertion of a foreign gene into bacterial plasmid

What is a restriction enzyme?

cut DNA molecules at specific locations

What is a plasmid?

Circular piece of DNA

Steps of cloning

1. Isolation of vector & gene-source DNA (cut)

2. Insertion of DNA into the vector

3. Introduction of cloning vector into cells

4. Cloning of cells (and foreign genes).

5. Identifying cell clones with right gene

genomic library

all DNA in the library

Gene cloning is commonly performed using what organism as the host?

bacteria

What is PCR?

amplify any piece of DNA without using cells

PCR 3 step cycle

heating, cooling, and replication, brings about a chain reaction that produces an exponentially growing population of DNA molecules

What is the key enzyme for PCR?

Taq DNA polymerase

What is meant by genomics?

comparisons, whole sets of genes and their interactions

What is an RFLP?

restriction fragment length polymorphisms

serve as a genetic marker for a particular location (locus) in genome

How can we use the information from an RFLP?

serve as genetic markers for making linkage maps

What is the Human Genome Project?

map entire human genome, determining nucleotide sequence of each human chromosome

What information has genome project provided?

many DNA sequences

DNA sequencing

Once a gene is cloned, complementary base pairing can be exploited to determine the gene's complete nucleotide sequence

What is proteomics?

systematic study of full protein sets (proteomes) encoded by genomes

Why is proteomics going to be more difficult than identifying all the genes?

Why are proteins so important?

-there more proteins then genes

-protein carry out all cell activities

How are we using DNA technology in agriculture?

medicine?

pharmaceuticals?

Ag- engineered crop plants with genes for desirable traits

med- reshape medicine, anticancer drugs

pharm- diagnoses of viruses

Pandemic

worldwide epidemic

CRISPR-Cas9

way to manipulate genome

What is gene therapy?

Techniques for gene manipulation hold great potential for treating disease

What cells are being used in gene therapy studies?

blood & immune system cells

What is a DNA fingerprint and how can we use them?

unique DNA fragments

What is a transgenic organism?

genes from another species - exploit attributes of the new genes

Ex: faster growth, larger muscles

What is a genetically modified organism?

any modified organism that produces a product it does not normally make

transgenic organisms

know that regulations and guidelines exist to control what products can be produced using DNA technology.

set of guidelines in US & other countries - formal government regulations

What does a developmental biologist study?

understanding of how a complex multicellular organism develops from a single cell

What is embryology?

study of stages of development leading from fertilized eggs to fully formed organism

How cells organized to get whole organism?

Cells organized into tissues, tissues into organs, organs into organ systems, and organ systems into the whole organism

What are the 3 processes of development?

cell division, differentiation, morphogenesis

Differentiation

cells become specialized in structure and function

Morphogenesis

generation of farm or shape

tadpole

building blocks

cell division

growth

apical meristem

where is it found?

responsible for plant's growth & formation of new organs

tips of shoots & roots

How are model organisms chosen?

readily observable embryos, short generation times, relatively small genomes, & preexisting knowledge about organism & its genes

fish, mice, fruit flies

model organisms

How are model organisms used?

Researchers select model organisms to study a particular question

What is meant by genome equivalence?

they all have same genes

try to generate a whole organism from differentiated cells of a single type

What is a clone?

produced genetically identical individuals

totipotent

plant - form all the cells needed to make new organism

animal - most cells fail to divide in culture, don't develop into new organism

pluripontent

can make cells but cant make everything

multipotent

cell with limited potential to develop into many types of differentiated cells

role of nuclear transplantation

move nucleus from one organism to an egg

nuclear "potency"

restricted more and more as embryonic development and cell differentiation progress

What is a stem cell?

unspecialized cells, continually reproduce themselves & can differentiate into specialized cell types

embryonic stem cell

"immortal" because of presence of telomerase that allows these cells to divide indefinitely

At what level is gene expression controlled?

transcription

Role of myoD in muscle development?

transcription factor, upper regulation that makes muscle specific proteins

MyoD

binds to what

promoter

What is meant by cytoplasmic determinants vs induction?

-signalling molecules in cytosol that allow for rapid development

-one cell talks to another

Maternal signals

in the egg

What is meant by pattern formation?

development of a spatial organization

3 axes to embryo

right and left

head and tail

top and bottom

what regulates pattern formation process?

cytoplasmic determinants

Pattern formation most studied in what organism?

Drosophila melanogaster

fruit fly

morphogen

establish an embryo's axes & other features

bicoid gene

codes for protein (transcription factor) - anterior (head) development- concentrated in head region

Form a head

morphogen function during development

determine polarity & position in embryo

segmentation gene

floors

direct formation of segments after the embryo's major axes are defined

homeotic gene

master regulatory genes, control where things get put

what is a homeobox domain?

codes for homeodomain (transcription factor protein)

Hox genes

another name for homeobox

where bones should go

Induction

triggering observablecellular changes by causing change in gene expression in target cell.

inducer

produce effects via signal-transduction pathways

Apoptosis

When and where

- programmed cell death

cell development

hands

plant development

cell signaling and transcriptional regulation

origin identity genes

determine types of structure grow from meristem

origin identity genes code for?

master genes, where leaves go or how many flowers on a pant

Bacteria

prokaryotic organisms, simply organized

Viruses

Protein shell that infects a cell

Types of virus genomes

ds DNA, ss DNA, ds RNA, or ss RNA

What comprises viruses?

Capsid

protein shell enclosing viral genome

viral envelope

membranes cloaking their capsids.

What is meant by host range?

Each type of virus can infect and parasitize only a limited range of host cells

Affect certain cells

lytic cycle

phage reproductive cycle culminates in death of host

lysogenic life cycle

phage genome replicates without destroying host cell

How do bacteria protect themselves against phages?

-restriction enzymes

-CRISPR - cutting DNA

Phages

viruses that infect bacteria

sequence of events during a viral infection

basics about life cycle of herpes virus and retroviruses

H-envelope derived from nuclear envelope of host, affect nerve cells

R- most complicated life cycles, take RNA and make DNA

What is reverse transcriptase?

transcribes DNA from an RNA template

What is a provirus?

DNA may integrate into cell's genome

HIV

virus that causes AIDS

take up cell and tricks other cells into thinking it is one of your cells

vaccine

harmless variants of pathogenic microbes - stimulate immune system to mount defenses against actual pathogen

Role of Jenner

fight small pox

recognize new treatments against viral infection.

AZT interferes with reverse transcriptase of HIV

Acyclovir inhibits herpes virus DNA synthesis

tumor virus

retrovirus, papovavirus, adenovirus, & herpesvirus

transform cells

Plant viruses

Horizontal

infected with virus by an external source

Plant viruses

vertical

plant inherits viral infection from parent

How did viruses evolve?

1) Mutation; 2) spread of existing viruses to another species; 3) dissemination of a viral disease from a small, isolated population

viroid

consist of tiny molecules of naked circular RNA that infect plants

soil

Prion

infectious proteins that spread a disease

Disease caused by prion

scrapie

mad cow disease

bacteria size

epidemic

A widespread outbreak of an infectious disease.