critical thinking chapters 1-5

critical thinking requires

acceptable reasons for beliefs and decisions.

A Valid Argument

If the premises are true then the conclusion must be true

critical thinking requires

acceptable reasons for beliefs and decisions.

A Valid Argument

If the premises are true then the conclusion must be true

Invalid Argument

Premises do not guarantee conclusion's truth.

Testing for Validity

Assume premises are true, check conclusion's truth.

Missing Premises

Omitted reasoning parts causing the argument to be invalid

Principle Charity

• When evaluating someone’s argument turn it into a valid argument 

• Add a conditional statement in between the argument to make it valid 

Piling on Independent Premises

Multiple independent reasons supporting the same conclusion.

Sound Argument

Valid argument with all true premises.

Independent Premises

Separate reasons contributing to the same conclusion.

False Premises and Soundness

No argument with false premises can be sound.

False Conclusion and Validity

Valid arguments can have false conclusions.

Premises and Validity

Valid arguments can have true or false premises.

____ is essential for strong arguments

validity

Argument Evaluation

Assessing arguments for validity and soundness.

Invalid Argument

An argument where true premises can lead to a false conclusion.

Valid Argument Forms

• All the As are Bs, All Bs are Cs, therefore, all As are Cs

• All the As are Bs, All Bs are Cs, therefore, some As are Cs

• All the As are Bs, none of the Bs are Cs, therefore, none of the As are Cs

The 4 argument form properties

(A)All the As are Bs 

      (E)None of the As are Bs

      (I) Some of the As are Bs = at least 1 

     (O) Some of the As are not Bs

Universal Generalization ( The one the class uses)

ALL cats have hearts

Generic Generalization ( not what the class uses)

Cats have hearts

Contradictories

Two propositions are ____ if they have opposite truth- values

Contraries

Two propositions are _____ if they cannot both be true, but they can both false

Subcontraries

Two propositions are _______ if they can both be true but they cannot both be false

Critical Thinking is

Reasonable thinking requiring good reasons for conclusions and beliefs.

Acceptable Evidence

Evidence from reliable sources, not undermined or overridden.

Direct Conflict

Two evidence pieces indicating opposite truths.

Overridden Evidence (direct conflict)

Evidence deemed unacceptable due to stronger evidence.

Undermined Evidence

two bits of evidence are in indirect conflict when one is shown as being possibly untrue by the other

Critical thinking mistake:Appeal to Ignorance

Belief in something due to lack of evidence against it.

Observation

Source of evidence based on direct perception.

Memory

Storehouse for evidence and past experiences.

Testimonial Evidence

Evidence from witnesses, requiring specific conditions.

Testimonial evidence is only acceptable if

• It is on an appropriate topic

• The witness is properly trained 

• The witness is properly informed 

• The witness is unbiased 

Properly Trained Witness

Witness with relevant expertise and knowledge.

Properly Informed Witness

Witness with accurate and relevant information.

Unbiased Witness

Witness without personal bias affecting testimony.

Advertising

Promotional content often lacking unbiased evidence.

Media Reports

News content similar to testimonial evidence.

Optimal Conditions

Ideal circumstances for reliable observation and evidence.

A source of evidence is reliable when

it provides accurate information most of the time

conditions for reliability

1. Reliability is a matter of degree 

2. Reliability depends on optimal conditions

3. Reliability is topic- relative 

Reporter Bias

Influence of reporters' personal views on news.

Corporate Bias

News influenced by corporate interests or ownership.

Cultural Bias

News shaped by cultural perspectives or norms.

Passive Reporting

Repeating sources' statements without critical analysis.

Funding Bias

Research influenced by the source of funding.

Publishing Bias

Need to be treated with caution.

Preference for positive results in academic publishing.

Opinion Polls

Surveys measuring public beliefs on various topics.

Survey Questions

Questions designed to gauge respondents' beliefs.

Ambiguous Questions

Vague questions leading to unclear survey results.

Charged Questions

Emotionally loaded questions influencing responses.

Loaded Questions

Questions that presuppose controversial assumptions.

Badly Ordered Questions

Poorly sequenced questions affecting survey clarity.

Subject Bias

Respondents may lie or exaggerate their answers.

Researcher Bias

Interviewer influences responses through question phrasing.

Double Blind Survey

Neither subjects nor interviewers know the target.

Epistemic Injustice

Mistake of doubting someone's expertise without reason.

Critical thinking mistake:Unacceptable Testimony

Accepting testimony from a witness who is biased, not properly informed, properly trained or on an appropriate topic

Knowledge Preservation

Transmitting knowledge through written or oral means.

Prejudice in Knowledge

Assuming ignorance based on lack of documentation.

Critical Thinking

Evaluating beliefs based on sound reasoning.

Systemic Injustice

Widespread discrimination based on unfounded beliefs.

Critical Thinking

Reasonable and reflective thinking aimed at deciding what to believe & what to do

Knowledge

Justified, true belief.

3 components of knowledge

belief, truth, and justification.

Belief

Acceptance that something is true or exists.

Truth

Objective reality that is not subjective.

Realism

View that facts exist independently of perception.

Relativism

View that facts are shaped by human perspective.

Denial

Involves beliefs without justification or truth.

Involves following evidence to reach conclusions.

bad critical thinking

Components of Knowledge

Belief, truth, and factual justification

Subjective Truth

Truth based on personal feelings or opinions.

justification, truth, no belief

Denial

Reflective Thinking

Contemplative process aimed at understanding beliefs.

Nihilism

Belief that no facts exist on a subject.

Moral Relativism

View that moral truths vary by culture.

Pragmatic Reason

Justification based on practical outcomes.

Emotional Reason

Justification driven by personal feelings.

Epistemic Reason

Justification based on evidence and knowledge.

Reason Conflict

When two pieces of evidence contradict each other.

Direct Conflict

one piece of evidence shows something is true and the other that it's false

Indirect Conflict

One peice of evidence suggests another may be untrue.

Justification

Acceptable and sufficient grounds for belief.

Conditions for Justification

acceptable and sufficient evidence

Good Guess

Belief without justification based on “intuition”, that happens to be true.

Unlucky Belief

Belief with justification but no truth.

Denial

Truth exists with justification but without belief.

Argument for Moral Relativism

There is enough disagreement surrounding morality that it can be agreed upon that it is relative

Realism

Always assume __________ as the default view on a subject until given reason to think otherwise

Undermined Evidence

When one piece of evidence shows the other is unreliable

Withholding judgment until sufficient evidence is available.

Good critical thinking

Overriding Evidence

More credible evidence dismisses less credible evidence.

Matters of Opinion

Subjective views not based on objective facts.

Ad hominnem

Assuming a testimony is false solely because a witness is biased or unreliable

Withholding belief when reasons conflict.

Critical thinking virtue

Autonomy

Making independent decisions in thought.

Assertion

Claiming something is true.

Proposition

What is asserted in an assertion.

Conjunction

Sentence containing 'and' with multiple parts.

Disjunction

Sentence containing 'or' indicating at least one truth (assertion)

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