Psychology: Key Theories, Brain Structures, and Development Stages

Structuralism

Early school using introspection to study the mind's structure (Wundt, Titchener).

Functionalism

Focused on functions of thoughts/behaviors (William James).

Psychoanalytic psychology

Freud's focus on unconscious drives and childhood experiences.

Behaviorism

Watson/Skinner; psychology should study observable behavior only.

Humanistic psychology

Maslow & Rogers; emphasized growth, free will, self-actualization.

Wilhelm Wundt

Founded first psychology lab (1879).

William James

Functionalist, wrote Principles of Psychology.

Sigmund Freud

Founder of psychoanalytic psychology.

John Watson

Behaviorist, famous for Little Albert experiment.

Carl Rogers

Humanistic psychologist, focused on unconditional positive regard.

Abraham Maslow

Humanistic, hierarchy of needs, self-actualization.

Case study

In-depth study of an individual.

Survey

Self-report method for large groups.

Naturalistic observation

Observing behavior in natural settings.

Correlation

Measure of relationship between two variables (positive/negative).

Correlation ≠ causation

Correlation predicts but does not prove cause-effect.

Independent variable

Factor manipulated in an experiment.

Dependent variable

Factor measured (outcome).

External validity

How well results generalize to real-world.

Ethics in research

Informed consent, confidentiality, debrief, protect from harm.

Neuron

Nerve cell; building block of nervous system.

Dendrites

Receive signals.

Axon

Sends signals.

Myelin sheath

Speeds conduction of impulses.

Action potential

Brief electrical charge traveling down axon.

Resting potential

Negative inside neuron relative to outside.

Depolarization

Sodium (NaI) rushes in.

Repolarization

Potassium (KI) flows out.

Synapse

Gap where neurotransmitters cross.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers (e.g., dopamine, serotonin).

Agonist

Enhances neurotransmitter effect.

Antagonist

Blocks neurotransmitter effect.

Reuptake

Reabsorption of neurotransmitter.

CNS

Brain + spinal cord.

PNS

Peripheral nerves; includes Somatic (voluntary) and Autonomic (involuntary).

Sympathetic division

Arouses (fight-or-flight).

Parasympathetic division

Calms (rest-and-digest).

Interneurons

Connect sensory & motor neurons.

EEG

Records electrical activity.

MRI

Brain structure.

fMRI

Brain activity (blood flow).

PET

Tracks glucose activity.

Medulla

Controls heartbeat, breathing.

Cerebellum

Coordination, balance.

Thalamus

Sensory relay station.

Reticular formation

Arousal, alertness.

Hippocampus

Memory formation.

Amygdala

Fear, aggression.

Hypothalamus

Hunger, thirst, reward.

Pituitary gland

Master gland, hormones.

Frontal lobe

Planning, reasoning, motor cortex.

Parietal lobe

Touch, body position.

Temporal lobe

Hearing, language.

Occipital lobe

Vision.

Corpus callosum

Connects hemispheres.

Left hemisphere

Language, logic.

Right hemisphere

Creativity, spatial skills.

Consciousness

Awareness of self and environment.

Selective attention

Focusing on one stimulus (cocktail party effect).

Inattentional blindness

Failing to see visible objects when attention is elsewhere.

Change blindness

Failure to notice environmental changes.

Controlled processing

Effortful, sequential thinking.

Automatic processing

Unconscious, parallel processing.

Dual processing

Info processed consciously & unconsciously at once.

Circadian rhythm

Biological clock, ~24-hour cycle.

N1 sleep

Light sleep.

N2 sleep

Sleep spindles.

N3 sleep

Deep sleep, delta waves.

REM sleep

Dreams, brain active, body paralyzed.

Insomnia

Trouble falling/staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

Sudden sleep attacks.

Sleep apnea

Breathing stops during sleep.

Night terrors

High arousal, not remembered.

Manifest content

Freud's surface-level dream content.

Latent content

Freud's hidden meaning of dreams.

Substance use disorder

Compulsive use despite harm.

Depressants

Alcohol, barbiturates, opiates (slow neural activity).

Stimulants

Nicotine, cocaine, meth (excite nervous system).

Hallucinogens

LSD, marijuana (distort perceptions).

Habituation

Decreased response with repeated exposure.

Assimilation

Fit new info into existing schema.

Accommodation

Adjust schema for new info.

Object permanence

Awareness objects exist when out of sight.

Egocentrism

Difficulty seeing others' perspective (preoperational).

Conservation

Quantity remains same despite shape change (concrete operational).

Sensorimotor stage

Piaget (0-2): Object permanence.

Preoperational stage

Piaget (2-6): Egocentrism, no conservation.

Concrete operational stage

Piaget (7-11): Logical reasoning.

Formal operational stage

Piaget (12+): Abstract thought.

Attachment theory

Emotional bond between infant & caregiver.

Harlow's monkeys

Comfort > food in attachment.

Ainsworth Strange Situation

Secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-anxious, disorganized attachment.

Authoritative parenting

Demanding + responsive → best outcomes.

Authoritarian parenting

Strict, low warmth → obedient but less social.

Permissive parenting

Few rules → impulsive, poor self-control.

Neglectful parenting

Low warmth/control → poor outcomes.

Erikson adolescence

Identity vs. role confusion.

Kohlberg Preconventional

Moral reasoning: punishment/reward.

Kohlberg Conventional

Moral reasoning: social rules/approval.

Kohlberg Postconventional

Moral reasoning: universal principles.