AP Psychology: Neuron, Brain, and Behavior Genetics Vocabulary

A comprehensive vocabulary review deck covering biological psychology, neurons, neurotransmitters, nervous system divisions, brain structures and functions, endocrine system, neuroimaging techniques, and evolutionary/behavior genetics.

Biological Psychology

The scientific study of the biological links between biological processes and psychological processes, grounded in the principle that everything psychological is biological.

Soma

The cell body of a neuron, which contains the nucleus and maintains the health of the cell.

Dendrite

The branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

Axon

The extension of a neuron through which messages pass to other neurons, muscles, or glands.

Myelin Sheath

A fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axon of a neuron that enables faster transmission speed; damage to it may result in multiple sclerosis (MS).

Action Potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

Threshold (All-or-Nothing)

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse; operates on an all-or-nothing response where the neuron either fires completely or not at all.

Synapse

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons to bind to receptor sites on the receiving cell.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter that influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal; low levels are linked to depression.

Norepinephrine (NE)

A neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning, and memory.

Gamma-aminobutyric Acid (GABA)

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter that calms neural activity.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure; drug use can suppress the body's natural endorphin supply.

Agonist

A molecule that binds to a receptor site and stimulates a response by mimicking a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

A molecule that binds to a receptor site and blocks or inhibits a response.

Sensory (Afferent) Neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the central nervous system.

Motor (Efferent) Neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons within the central nervous system that communicate internally and intervene between sensory inputs and motor outputs.

Mirror Neurons

Neurons in the frontal lobe that fire both when performing an action and when observing another perform that action, facilitating observational and vicarious learning.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing sensory information and generating automatic reflex actions.

Reflex

A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The sensory and motor neurons connecting the central nervous system to the rest of the body, divided into somatic and autonomic branches.

Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's voluntary muscle movements.

Autonomic Nervous System

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary muscles and internal organs.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The branch of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body and expends energy in response to stress or danger.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The branch of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body and conserves energy.

Neural Network

Interconnected neural cells and clusters that learn and process information together.

Brain Stem

The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; controls automatic survival functions.

Medulla

The base of the brainstem that controls vital automatic functions such as heartbeat and breathing.

Pons

The portion of the brainstem that helps coordinate movement and control sleep.

Reticular Formation

A nerve network traveling through the brainstem that plays a central role in controlling arousal.

Thalamus

The brain's sensory control center, located atop the brainstem; directs sensory messages to sensory receiving areas in the cortex.

Cerebellum

The 'little brain' at the rear of the brainstem that functions in processing sensory input, coordinating movement output, and balance.

Limbic System

A neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres, associated with emotions and drives.

Hippocampus

A neural center in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for long-term storage.

Amygdala

Two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system linked to emotions, particularly fear and aggression.

Hypothalamus

A limbic system structure lying below the thalamus; directs maintenance activities like eating, drinking, and body temperature, controls the pituitary gland, and releases oxytocin.

Cerebral Cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

Glial Cells

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; includes specialized microglial cells.

Frontal Lobes (Prefrontal Cortex)

Portion of the cerebral cortex involved in speaking, muscle movements, making plans, and judgments; famously damaged in Phineas Gage.

Occipital Lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex located at the back of the head that includes areas receiving visual information.

Temporal Lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears, receiving auditory information primarily from the opposite ear.

Parietal Lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head that receives sensory input for touch and body position; contains the motor and somatosensory cortex.

Association Areas

Areas of the cerebral cortex not involved in primary motor or sensory functions, but in higher mental processing; dispels the '10% myth' of brain usage.

Brain Plasticity

The brain's ability to modify itself by reorganizing after damage or building new pathways based on experience.

Broca's Area

An area of the left frontal lobe that controls language expression and directs muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's Area

An area of the left temporal lobe involved in language comprehension and expression.

Aphasia

Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area or Wernicke's area.

Corpus Callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

Split-Brain

A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by severing the corpus callosum.

Endocrine System

The body's slow chemical communication system consisting of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands that travel through the blood; includes adrenaline, melatonin, thyroxine, testosterone, and estrogen.

Pituitary Gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland, controlled by the hypothalamus, which regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Lesion

Tissue destruction; a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue used to study brain function.

EEG (Electroencephalogram)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface, measuring brain wave frequencies.

CAT Scan (Computed Tomography)

A series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain structure.

PET Scan (Positron Emission Tomography)

A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

A technique using magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue, showing brain structure.

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of the evolution of behavior and mind using principles of natural selection.

Natural Selection

The principle that traits aiding species survival and reproduction pass on to succeeding generations, such as giraffes with longer necks having greater food access.

Sexual Selection

Selection for traits specifically favored because they attract mates for reproduction.

Biological Preparedness

An innate predisposition where certain phobias helped ancestors survive and pass down genes to future generations.

Mutation

Random errors in gene replication that lead to a change in the sequence of nucleotides.

Identical Twins

Twins developed from a single zygote (fertilized egg) that splits in two, creating two genetic replicas.

Fraternal Twins

Twins who develop from separate zygotes and are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters.

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that can be attributed to genes.

Temperament

A person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity, tested in children via tasks like the Marshmallow Test and influenced by socioeconomic status.

Behavioral Genetics

The study of the power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

Rosenzweig and Krech Experiment

An experiment placing rats in impoverished versus enriched environments to observe how surroundings impact brain development and cellular structure.

Social Learning Theory

The theory that people learn from one another via observation, imitation, and modeling.

Gene-Environment Interaction

The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as genetic background).

Culture

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

Individualistic Culture

A cultural orientation that gives priority to one's own goals over group goals and defines identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group membership.

Collectivist Culture

A cultural orientation that gives priority to the goals of one's group and defines identity accordingly.

Norms

An understood rule for what is accepted and expected in society.

Memes

A piece of cultural information or idea that is passed from one entity to another.

Gender Identity

In psychology, the characteristics, whether biologically or socially influenced, by which people define male and female.

Gender Typing

The process by which a child becomes aware of their gender and adopts the values and attributes of that sex.

Gender Schema Theory

The theory that children learn about male and female roles from their culture and organize their behavior around those standards.

Gender Role

A set of expected behaviors and expectations associated with a social position.