biol 1100 exam 2

chapters 3, 4, 6, 7

(CH2O)n

general formula for carbohydrates

1:2:1

ratio of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen in carbohydrates

monosaccharides

glucose, fructose, galactose; number of carbons range from 3-7

aldehyde group

H-C=O at the top

ketone group

C=O in the middle

C6H12O6

chemical formula for glucose

in aqueous solutions

monosaccharides form rings

Disaccharide

A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis. (lactose, maltose, sucrose

glycosidic bond

covalent bond between two monosaccharides

alpha bond

Type of chemical bond that can be broken by human intestinal enzymes in digestion, faces down

beta bond

a type of chemical bond that cannot be easily digested by enzymes found in the human intestine, faces up

polysaccharides

Carbohydrates that are made up of more than two monosaccharides

branched polysaccharides

multiple types of glycosidic bonds (amylopectin and glycogen)

unbranched polysaccharides

only one type of glycosidic bond (amylose and cellulose)

glycogen

storage form of glucose in animals

cellulose

carbohydrate component of plant cell walls.

metabolism

All of the chemical reactions that occur within an organism

carbohydrate metabolism

changes glucose to glycogen, breaks glycogen down into glucose

C6H12O6+602 -> 6CO2+6H20

catabolic reaction

any chemical reaction that breaks down complex molecules into simpler molecules

anabolic reaction

any chemical reaction that combines simple molecules to build more-complex molecules

endergonic reaction

A non-spontaneous chemical reaction in which free energy is absorbed from the surroundings.

exergonic reaction

A spontaneous chemical reaction in which there is a net release of free energy.

Gibbs free energy

energy available to do work

metabolic pathway

Begins with a specific molecule, which is then altered in a series of defined steps, resulting in a certain product.

anabolic pathway

A metabolic pathway that consumes energy to synthesize a complex molecule from simpler compounds.

catabolic pathway

A metabolic pathway that releases energy by breaking down complex molecules to simpler compounds.

kinetic energy

energy of motion

potential energy

stored energy

chemical energy

Energy stored in chemical bonds

free energy

energy available to do work (delta G)

𝛥G=𝛥H−T𝛥S

enthalpy

total energy of a system (delta H)

entropy

measure of disorder (delta S)

activation energy

Energy needed to get a reaction started (Ea)

transition state

a high-energy intermediate state of the reactants during a chemical reaction that must be achieved for the reaction to proceed

heat energy

the energy transferred from one system to another that is not work

spontaneous reaction

process that occurs without the input of free energy

non-spontaneous reaction

process that occurs with the input of free energy

first law of thermodynamics

Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed.

second law of thermodynamics

Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe.

3 carbons

triose

4 carbons

tetrose

5 carbons

pentose

6 carbons

hexose

7 carbons

heptose

8 carbons

octose

dehydration synthesis

two molecules covalently bond to each other with the removal of a water molecule.

types of monosaccharides

glucose, fructose, galactose

Function of monosaccharides

short term energy, basic energy

Sources of Monosaccharides

honey and fruits

types of disaccharides

sucrose, lactose, maltose

Function of disaccharides

sugars that we use for energy; ex: lactose and sucrose

types of polysaccharides

starch, glycogen, cellulose

Function of polysaccharides

energy storage and structure

cytoskeleton

A network of protein fibers that holds the cell together, helps the cell to keep its shape, and aids in movement

microfilaments

Long, thin fibers that function in the movement and support of the cell

intermediate filaments

twice as thick as microfilaments; no role in cell movement, only structural function

microtubules

help the cell resist compression, pull replicated chromosomes to opposite ends of a dividing cell

intercellular junctions

The connections between one cell and the other

plasmodesmata

An open channel in the cell wall of plants through which strands of cytosol connect from adjacent cells

tight junctions

watertight seal between two animal cells; prevent leakage of extracellular fluid across a layer of epithelial cells

desmosomes

Anchoring junctions that prevent cells from being pulled apart

gap junctions

provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent animal cells

extracellular matrix

The chemical substances located between connective tissue cells

ATP hydrolysis

ATP is converted to ADP & phosphate energized myosin heads (removal of phosphate) need energy (exergonic)

ATP synthase

Large protein that uses energy from H+ ions to bind ADP and a phosphate group together to produce ATP

ATP synthesis

occurs in the mitochondria

ATP coupling

- anabolic reactions require energy (couple with ATP hydrolysis)

- catabolic reactions release energy (couple with ATP synthesis)

enzyme mediated reactions

with these type of reactions the rate of product formation is greatly influenced by the concentrations of the reactants

enzyme active site

Site of the enzyme surface where substrate molecules binds

Enzyme substrate

The reactant that an enzyme acts on

substrate specificity

ability of an enzyme to discriminate between very similar molecules

induced fit

The change in shape of the active site of an enzyme so that it binds more snugly to the substrate, induced by entry of the substrate. (lock and key model)

competitive inhibition

substance that resembles the normal substrate competes with the substrate for the active site

noncompetitive inhibition

inhibitor binds elsewhere on the enzyme; alters active site so that the substrate cannot bind

allosteric inhibition

inhibition by a binding event at a site different from the active site, which induces a conformational change and reduces the affinity of the enzyme for its substrate

equilibrium

a state in which opposing forces or influences are balanced.

enzyme-substrate complex

A temporary complex formed when an enzyme binds to its substrate molecule(s).

redox reaction

transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another; also called oxidation-reduction reaction.

reducing agent

The electron donor in a redox reaction.

oxidizing agent

The electron acceptor in a redox reaction.

oxidation

The loss of electrons from a substance involved in a redox reaction.

reduction

The gain of electrons from a substance involved in a redox reaction.

electron carrier

a compound that can accept a pair of high-energy electrons and transfer them, along with most of their energy, to another molecule (NAD+)

cellular respiration

Process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen

cellular respiration equation

C6H12O6+6O2---> 6CO2+6H2O+ATP

cytoplasm and mitochondria

where cellular respiration takes place

glycolysis

releasing the energy of glucose, in which a molecule of glucose is broken into two molecules of pyruvic acid

pyruvate oxidation

occurs on the way to the mitochondrial matrix. Pyruvate is oxidized into 1 CO2, 1 NADH, 1 acetyl-COA (2 carbons attached to coenzyme A)

Krebs cycle

energy stored in pyruvate is transferred to NADH and FADH2, and some ATP is produced

oxidative phosphorylation

results in the formation of ATP from the flow of electrons across the inner membrane to bind with oxygen.

electron transport chain

A sequence of electron carrier molecules (membrane proteins) that shuttle electrons during the redox reactions that release energy used to make ATP.