AP Psych Unit 3 Vocab

Language

Our agreed-upon system of spoken, write, or signed words, an the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

Phoneme

In a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

Morpheme

In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)

Grammar

In a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others; includes both semantic rules and syntax

Semantics

In a language, a set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds; sometimes dependent on the context in which the sounds are used

Syntax

In a language, a set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences

Cooing

The earliest stage in speech development, where the baby makes soft, repetitive vowel sounds with various pitches, like “ooh” and “ahh”

Babbling

The stage in speech development, beginning around 4 months, during which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds – including consonant/vowel combinations like “gaga” – that are not necessarily related to the household language. By the end of this stage, the baby's sounds become limited to the phonemes that exist in the household language.

One-word stage

The stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

Two-word stage

The stage in speech development, beginning around age 2, during which a child speaks mostly in two-word sentences

Telegraphic speech

The early stage in which a child speaks like a telegram – “go car” – using mostly nouns and verbs

Overgeneralization

When a language-learner applies grammatical rules too broadly, often resulting in errors, by extending a pattern they've learned to situations where it doesn't apply

Ecological systems theory

A theory of the social environments’s influence on human development, using five nested systems ranging from direct to indirect influences

Microsystem

In the ecological systems theory, the immediate social settings that have direct impact on a child’s life – e.g. home, school, neighborhood

Mesosystem

In the ecological systems theory, the relationships that exist within microsystem groups – e.g. parents and peers, parents and schoo.

Exosystem

In the ecological systems theory, the environments that indirectly affect a child – e.g. a parent’s workplace

Macrosystem

In the ecological systems theory, the cultural influences that shape a child’s life – e.g. surround cultural values and beliefs

Chronosystem

In the ecological systems theory, the way important events in a child’s life intersect with life stages – e.g. moving to a new town at age 2 versus age 13

Authoritarian parenting

Parenting style where parents are coercive, imposing rules and expecting strict obedience

Authoritative parenting

Parenting style where parents create structure by setting and enforcing rules through open discussion and decision-making with children

Permissive parenting

Parenting style where parents are un-restraining, submitting to their children’s desires, making few demands, and using little punishment

Neglectful parenting

Parenting style where the parents are uninvolved, neither demanding nor responsive, and do not seek a relationship with their children

Attachment

An emotional tie with others’ shown in young children by their seeking closeness to caregivers and showing distress on separation

Separation anxiety

Distress experienced by individuals (typically infants or young children) when separated from their primary caregivers

Stranger anxiety

The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

Strange situation

A procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and then returns, and the child’s reactions are observed

Secure attachment

A type of emotional bond demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver's return

Insecure attachment

A type of emotional bond between a child and caregiver characterized by anxiety, uncertainty, and a lack of trust, often stemming from inconsistent or neglectful caregiving, leading to difficulties in relationships later in life

Avoidant attachment

A form of insecure attachment where a child resists closeness with their caregiver

Anxious attachment

A form of insecure attachment where a child demonstrates a strong fear of abandonment and rejection, often leading to clingy behavior and excessive need for reassurance

Disorganized attachment

A form of insecure attachment where a child shows no consistent behaviors when separated from, or reunited with, caregivers

Imprinting

The process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life (like ducklings following their mother)

Temperament

A person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity; thought to be a hereditary trait (and thus a contribution from the nature side of the nature-nurture debate)

Self-concept

All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?”

Identity

Our sense of self; according to Erik Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

Parallel play

A developmental stage where children play alongside each other, using the same space and sometimes even materials, but without directly interacting or coordinating their play with one another

Pretend play

A type of play where children use their imagination to create scenarios, act out different roles, and assign meaning to objects

Imaginary audience

A cognitive phenomenon where an individual believes that a large group of people are constantly observing and paying close attention to them, often leading to heightened self-consciousness, particularly prevalent during adolescence

Personal fable

The belief held by adolescents that they are unique and invincible, leading them to think that their experiences and feelings are completely distinct from others

Emerging adulthood

A period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many persons in prosperous Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

Social clock

The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

Psychosocial stages of development

Erik Erikson theory that each stage of life has its own “psychosocial task,” or a kind of crisis that needs resolution, or order for normal social-emotional development to proceed

Psychosocial conflicts

A primary challenge or struggle than an individual might face at a given stage in their life

Trust and mistrust

Erikson’s first stage, for infants up to 1 year old, where if the baby’s needs are dependably met, it will develop a sense of basic trust

Autonomy and shame/doubt

Erikson’s second stage, for toddlers ages 1-3, when they learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves (or they doubt their abilities)

Initiative and guilt

Erikson’s third stage, for children ages 3-6, when they learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans (or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent)

Industry and inferiority

Erikson’s fourth stage, for elementary age children age 6 to puberty, when they learn the pleasure of applying themselves to task (or they feel inferior)

Identity and role confusion

Erikson’s fifth stage, for adolescents in their teens to early 20s, when they work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity (or they become confused about who they are)

Intimacy and isolation

Erikson’s sixth stage, for young adults in their 20s and 30s, when they learn to form close relationships and gain the capacity for intimate love (or they feel socially isolated)

Generativity and stagnation

Erikson’s seventh stage, for middle age adults in their 40s to 60s, when they discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work (or they may feel a lack of purpose

Integrity and despair

Erikson’s eight and final stage, for adults in their late 60s and older, when they reflect on their lives and may feel either a sense of satisfaction or failure

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

Traumatic experiences during childhood, such as abuse or severe household dysfunction, that are thought to leave a kind of permanent mark on various aspects of their development (including physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development)

Social identity

The “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships

Diffusion (of identity)

Early on in a person’s identity formation, when they may have no commitment to a particular identity and perhaps have little sense of who they are

Foreclosure (of identity)

A premature commitment to an identity with little exploration

Moratorium (of identity)

A process common during adolescence, when people activity seek a meaningful identity without having yet settled on one

Achievement (of identity)

The status for those who, after exploration, have settled on a committed sense of self

Developmental Psychology

A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development throughout the lifespan

Stability

The concept, in developmental psychology, that we retain many of the traits that shape our identities throughout our lives

Change

The concept, in developmental psychology, that the traits that shape our identities evolve over our lifetimes

Nature

The idea that our behaviors and thoughts are a result of “inborn” factors like our genetic makeup

Nurture

The idea that our behaviors and thoughts are a result of our sensations of the world around us

Continuity (continuous stages of development)

The concept, in developmental psychology, that sees maturation as a gradual process where changes happen steadily over time

Discontinuity (discontinuous stages of development)

The concept, in developmental psychology, that emphasizes distinct steps in the maturation process, with significant changes happening between those stages

Cross-sectional study

Research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time

Longitudinal study

Research that follows and retests the same people over time

Teratogens

Agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Maternal illnesses

Illnesses, or symptoms of illness like severe fever, that affect the fetal environment and can impact prenatal developmen

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

Physical and cognitive function deficits in children caused by their birth mothers’ heavy drinking during pregnancy. In severe cases, symptoms include a small, out-of-proportion head and distinct facial features

Genetic mutations

A permanent change in an organism's DNA sequence, which can alter the genetic information, affect fetal development, and potentially lead to changes in observable traits or behaviors

Maturation

Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

Rooting

A reflex movement that comes naturally to most newborns, where stimulation of the cheek leads the baby to turn its head in search of food (like its mother’s nipple)

Critical period

An optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiencers produces normal development; without  exposure during this time, the development will be unlikely to occur later

Sensitive period

Period of time during which exposure to a specific environmental condition (or lack of exposure) has the potential for the greatest influence; development can occur after the sensitive period, but it is more difficult

Gross motor skills

Movements involving large muscles body structures (like hips and legs)

Fine motors skills

Movements involving the small muscles and body structures (like fingertips

Adolescence

The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

Puberty

The period of sexual maturation, during which a person usually becomes capable of reproducing

Primary sex characteristics

The body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

Secondary sex characteristics

Nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

Menarche

The first menstrual period

Spermarche

Start of sperm production

Menopause

The time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

Sex

In psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male, female, and intersex

Intersex

Possessing male and female sexual characteristics at birth

Gender

In psychology, the attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture associates with a person’s biological sex

Gender role

A set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for men and women

Gender identity

Our personal sense of being male, female, neither, or some combination of male and female, regardless of the whether this identity matches our sex assigned at birth, and the social affiliation that may result from this identity

Androgyny

Blending traditional masculine and traditionally feminine psychological characteristics

Transgender

When a person’s personal identity of gender does not correspond with their birth sex.

Sexual orientation

A person’s sexual and emotional attraction to another person and the behavior and/or social affiliation that may result from this attraction

Cognition

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Jean Piaget

Swiss psychologist (1896-1980) who proposed theories of children's cognitive stage development

Schema

A concept, developed through experience and learning, that helps to organize and interpret unfamiliar information

Assimilation

Interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas; tying new knowledge into our current understandings

Accommodation

Adapting our current schemas to incorporate new knowledge

Sensorimotor stage

In Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

Object permanence

The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Preoperational stage

In Piaget’s theory, the stage (from 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

Conservation

The principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects