English Verb 1: Contrastive Studies and Verb Classifications

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards covering contrastive linguistics, verb morphology, syntactic classifications, modality, conditionals, and voice based on the lecture notes.

Contrastive studies

A discipline dealing with the process of language comparison, i.e., parallel description and interlingual comparison between two languages to establish similarities and differences.

Contrastive analysis (CA)

A systematic technique in contrastive studies to compare two languages based on a common feature, also known as parallel description or analytical comparison.

Translation theory

A non-systematic area of research in Contrastive Studies that compares segments to find equivalents and establish techniques to avoid mistakes.

Error analysis

A non-systematic area of research that compares certain segments to determine, locate, correct, and explain the most common errors in language learning.

Confrontative analysis

A type of analysis within contrastive studies that looks for both differences and similarities between languages.

Comparative analysis

A diachronic analysis that looks at one and the same language and its development over time.

Strong version of CA

An approach in foreign language teaching that implies a systematic comparison at all levels: morphology, phonology, syntax, and vocabulary.

Weak version of CA

An approach that implies awareness of language differences to predict difficulties and correct errors without assuming different always equals difficult.

Benjamin Lee Whorf

The linguist who coined the terms contrastive analysis and contrastive linguistics in 1941 in the paper Language and Logic.

Linguistics across Cultures

An influential book published in 1957 by Robert Lado, who is considered the founder of Contrastive Analysis.

Tertium comparationis

Literally 'the third element of comparison,' it is the general feature observed in two languages during contrastive analysis.

Formal equivalence

Equivalence based on shared word classes and structures between language A and language B.

Semantic equivalence

Also called notional equivalence, it refers to instances where the same meaning is conveyed in different languages, regardless of structure.

Correspondence

A relationship between languages where formal equivalence is lacking but semantic similarity is maintained.

Convergent relation

A relationship where two or more items of language A relate to one item in language B (e.g., ujak, stric, teca – uncle).

Divergent relation

A relationship where one item in language A relates to two or more items in language B (e.g., zemlja – earth, soil, land, ground, country).

Zero relations

A situation where a corresponding element does not exist in the target language, creating a gap (e.g., the = Ø).

Dionysius Thrax's verb definition

Defines a verb as a part of speech without case inflection, but inflected for tense, person, and number, signifying an activity or process.

Formal definitions of verbs

Definitions based on inflectional morphology, identifying verbs by suffixes like -s, -ed, -ing, and -en in English.

Functional definitions of verbs

Definitions identifying the verb as the part of speech whose main function is predication (the predicator).

TNP tests

A set of syntactic tests—Time, Negation, and Passivisation—established by Palmer (1987) to distinguish simple and complex verb phrase structures.

Linking verbs

Lexical verbs that take a noun or adjective as their complement, including resulting copulas that reflect a change in state.

NICE Properties

The set of properties (Negation, Inversion, Code, Emphasis) that distinguish auxiliaries from lexical verbs.

Internal and external velocity

The criterion used to determine dynamicity: if there is a difference between the speed of the action and the speed of time, the verb is dynamic.

Telicity

Derived from the Greek 'telos' (goal), it indicates situations that have a defined completion or endpoint.

Accomplishments

A Vendler category for dynamic situations with heterogeneous temporal structures and a defined goal (telic).

Achievements

Momentary situations with only one segment that need an initial input of energy and have a goal (telic).

Epistemic modality

Modality expressing the speaker's assessment of possibility or necessity based on their knowledge and judgment.

Deontic modality

Modality expressing permission, obligation, order, or promise, often using performative modals.

Dynamic modality

Modality expressing the ability, willingness, or habit of a subject.

Putative should

A use of 'should' in specific contexts to express doubt, surprise, or disapproval in a less direct way, often following 'it is a pity that…'

Real conditionals

Conditionals that imply a dependency and specify what will happen if a condition occurs, used with future or past time reference.

Inference conditionals

Conditionals used to draw conclusions or provide ironical comments rather than expressing causality (e.g., 'If you are telling the truth, I am the Queen of England').

Middle voice

A 'notional passive' sentence which is active in form but passive in meaning, where the subject is not an agent.

Ergative verbs

Verbs like 'move' and 'open' where the subject is typically the patient or theme and which do not have a direct object in that construction.

Pseudo-passive

A construction resembling a passive in structure (be + Ved) but containing a participial adjective and lacking a corresponding active sentence.

Semi-passives

Constructions containing a participial adjective that have a corresponding active sentence and a by-agent (e.g., 'He was embarrassed by her actions').

Statal passives

Constructions expressing a lasting quality or state resulting from a completed activity, such as 'The theatre was closed for renovation.'

Lexical passive

A construction with no passive morphology where an active-form ergative verb (like 'break' or 'cook') has a subject that is the patient or theme.