AP Psych Final Exam Review Guide 2025

Projection

A defense mechanism where individuals attribute their own unwanted thoughts, feelings, or motives onto another person. For example, if someone feels insecure, they might accuse others of being insecure instead.

Displacement

A defense mechanism where an individual satisfies an impulse (e.g. aggression) with a substitute object. For example, someone who is frustrated by their boss might go home and harm their dog instead of the boss.

Sublimation

A defense mechanism where an individual satisfies an impulse (e.g. aggression) with a substitute object in a SOCIALLY ACCEPTABLE WAY. For example, someone with aggressive urges might take up a sport to express that energy in a constructive way.

Denial

A defense mechanism where individuals refuse to accept reality or facts that cause them anxiety or distress. For example, someone who is struggling with addiction may deny that their substance use is a problem.

Rationalization

A defense mechanism where individuals justify their actions or feelings by providing logical reasons, even if those reasons are not the true motivations. For example, a student who cheats on an exam might rationalize their behavior by saying they needed a good grade to pass.

Suppression

A defense mechanism where an individual consciously chooses to ignore or avoid uncomfortable thoughts or feelings in order to focus on other aspects of life. For example, a person may suppress feelings of sadness in order to concentrate on work.

How can you remember all defense mechanisms?

“DR. SPDS,” (Dr. speeds, no e), which stands for: denial, rationalization, suppression, projection, displacement, and sublimation.

What is motor in development?

In development, it refers to the progression of physical abilities in children, including gross motor skills (movement that uses large muscles) and fine motor skills (movement using smaller muscles). This development is influenced by various factors such as maturation, environment, and practice.

Maturation

In development, it refers to the biological growth processes that occur in an orderly sequence, enabling physical and psychological development and is often independent of environmental influences. For example, as a child reaches a certain age, they begin to learn how to walk and talk.

Milestones

In development, it refers to significant achievements in physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development that are typically reached by individuals within specific age ranges. For example, this can be shown by a baby beginning to crawl, a child learning to speak, or a teenager developing a sense of identity.

Recognition of Self

In development, it refers to the individual’s ability to understand and identify their own attributes, feelings, and experiences separate from others. This ability often emerges in early childhood and is crucial for self-awareness and personal identity.

Accommodation

In development, it refers to the cognitive process of modifying existing mental frameworks to incorporate new information or experiences, facilitating better understanding and learning. For example, when a child learns that not all four-legged animals are dogs.

What is newborn discrimination?

In development, it refers to a test to see if newborns are able to discriminate between different smells, voices, and even facial expressions, showing preferences for human voices and their mother’s smell.

How can you remember all these development concepts/terms?

“My mother makes really nice Alfredo (pasta),” which stands for: motor, maturation, milestones, recognition of self, newborn discrimination, and accommodation.

Social Phobias?

An anxiety disorder that is defined as a persistent and intense fear of social situations where one might be negatively evaluated by others. For example, a student experiences intense anxiety when they have to answer a question out loud in class because they believe they will be judged by their classmates.

GAD

An anxiety disorder characterized by excessive worry about (usually) everyday events or other various aspects of their life for a long period of time, (usually at least six months). For example, a student constantly worries about their grades to the point where it significantly impairs their daily functioning and overall mental health.

Panic Disorder?

An anxiety disorder characterized by recurrent panic attacks, which are sudden periods of intense fear, along with persistent worry about future attacks and their consequences. Individuals with this disorder may have behavioral changes in which they avoid situations where they fear having another attack.

Agoraphobia?

An anxiety disorder characterized by excessive fear or anxiety about being in situations where escape might be difficult or help is unavailable if panic-like symptoms were to occur.

Treatment(s) for agoraphobia?

Relaxation methods such as meditation, deep breathing, and progressive muscle relaxation. Other methods may include exposure therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy.

OCD

An anxiety disorder characterized by persistent, unwanted and intrusive thoughts, images, or urges that cause significant distress.

Trait Theories?

Perspective on personality that focuses on identifying measuring stable, enduring characteristics or qualities that define an individual’s behavior. They emphasize stable and continuous characteristics.

Schizophrenia

A psychotic disorder, referring to the state where a person loses touch with reality. This disorder includes symptoms of delusion (false beliefs) and hallucinations (seeing/hearing things that don’t exist).

Social Learning Theory

Individuals learn by observing and imitating others rather than direct experience and personal reinforcement.

Avoidant

A type of personality disorder characterized by feelings of inadequacy, inescapable pattern of social inhibition, and hyper-sensitivity to negative evaluation. Individuals with this disorder avoid social interaction and imitate relationships.

Dependent

A type of personality disorder characterized by an inescapable need to be taken care of, leading to submissive and clinging behaviors, and a strong fear of abandonment. Individuals may need excessive reassurance, as they struggle to make decisions on their own and are easily hurt by disapproval.

Histrionic

A type of personality disorder characterized by excessive emotionality and attention-seeking behavior. Individuals with this disorder are easily influenced by others and often exhibit dramatic or theatrical behaviors, shifting between emotions frequently.

Borderline

A type of personality disorder characterized by difficulties in regulating emotions, maintaining stable relationships, and having a consistent sense of self. Individuals with this personality disorder may experience frequent, intense mood swings, unstable relationships, and impulsivity.

Antisocial

A type of personality disorder characterized by a persistent pattern of disregard for and the violation of the rights of others. Individuals with this personality disorder may struggle to conform, lack empathy, and begin to display manipulative/aggressive behaviors.

Seasonal Affective Disorder

A type of depression that occurs during specific seasons and most commonly during the fall and winter. Some symptoms include sadness, fatigue, irritability, and changes in appetite and sleep patterns. THIS CAN BE TREATED WITH LIGHT THERAPY.

Social Loafing

The tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group compared to working alone.

Social Facilitation

The tendency for individuals to work on tasks better when they are in the presence of other people compared to when they are alone.

Group Think

A phenomenon where a group of individuals make irrational or poor decisions due to their desire for consensus and harmony. Group members will often suppress their own opinions to conform to the majority view.

Group Polarization

A phenomenon where the beliefs, attitudes, and decisions of a group shift to move toward a more extreme version of the version before.

Social Desirability Bias

A tendency for individuals to respond to questions in a way that presents them in a more favorable light, even when their answers are not accurate.

Normative Social Influence

The pressure to conform to a group’s norms and expectations in order to gain acceptance and avoid social disapproval/rejection.

Cognitive Dissonance

A phenomenon where a person holds two or more conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors simultaneously. For example, an individual desires to be healthy, but they do not exercise or eat a nutritious diet, resulting in guilt.

Stereotype Threat

When an individual belonging to a group that is negatively stereotypes feels at risk of confirming that stereotype.

Fundamental Attribution Error

A cognitive bias where individuals tend to overestimate the influence of personal character and underestimate the influence of situational factors when explaining OTHERS’ behaviors. For example, if someone fails an exam, one might assume that they lack intelligence.

Self-serving Bias

The tendency to attribute success to internal factors (like effort), and failures to external factors (like bad luck).

Just-world Hypothesis

A belief that the world is fair and that people generally get what they deserve, both good and bad.

Representative Heuristic

A mental shortcut where people judge the likelihood of something based on how well it seems to represent a prototype or stereotype. For example, if someone is described as quiet, a bookworm, and wears glasses, one might assume that they are a librarian.

Reciprocal Determinism

The interconnected influence of behavior, internal cognitive processes, and the environment. These factors do not work independently, but shape each other and influence one another in a continuous cycle.

Self-actualization

The process of realizing one’s full potential and becoming the best version of oneself. (According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs)

Self-fulfilling Prophecy

A phenomenon where a belief or expectation influences one's actions or behavior, leading to the fulfillment of that belief or expectation, whether accurate or not. For example, if you expect to fail a test, you might study less, leading to a lower grade and thus fulfilling your initial expectation. 

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after an event has occurred, that one would have predicted it beforehand. The “I knew it all along” phenomenon.

Mere Exposure Effect

The tendency for people to develop a positive preference for things they are familiar with.

Diffusion of Responsibility

The phenomenon where individuals feel less personal responsibility to act when they are in a group, especially when other people are present and could also take action

What Can Major Depression Be Treated With?

TMS (Transcranial magnetic stimulation)

What Did Milgram’s Obedience Studies Find?

Procedure: Participants were instructed to act as "teachers" and administer electric shocks to a "learner" (who was actually an actor) for incorrect answers to a word-association task. The "learner" would feign pain and protest as the shocks increased.

Results: Most people obey perceived authority.

What Does Asch’s Study of Conformity Reveal?

Procedure: Participants were placed in a group with confederates (individuals who were part of the experiment and knew the true purpose).They were asked to judge which line on a card matched a reference line in terms of length.The confederates were instructed to give incorrect answers on certain trials. Researchers observed whether the real participant would conform to the incorrect group answer. 

Results: Conformity is reduced most by a single dissenter.

Fluid Intelligence (Raymond Cattell)

The capacity to solve new problems, reason abstractly, and adapt to unfamiliar situations, independent of accumulated knowledge or experience

Crystallized Intelligence

The accumulated knowledge and skills a person gains through life experiences and education, including facts, information, and expertise.

Who Developed The Concept of “g” for General Intelligence?

Charles Spearman

What Does Maslow Suggest About Humans?

A self-actualized person has a strong moral sense, self-acceptance, and acts independently.

Who Criticized Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development and Why?

It was criticized by Carol Gilligan for not studying females.

What did Mary Ainsworth's "Strange Situation" study test?

Tested children's attachment styles.

Harlow's study with monkeys showed what?

That contact comfort was preferred.

Concrete Operational Stage (Piaget)

(7-11) Children begin to develop logical thought and begin to develop the concept of conservation.

Gardner

Developed multiple intelligences like naturalist, visual-spatial, math-logic, and musical-rhythmic.

Rorschach Ink blot Test

Used to assess personality traits with projective tests with ambiguous pictures.

Personal Inventories

Usually used to assess personality traits through psychometric tests that assesses and describes an individual’s personality traits and behaviors.

Psychoanalytic Theory

Focuses on unconscious conflicts that lead to mental illness.

Twin Studies Show..

There is a proof of a genetic component (trait/characteristic influenced by their genes) to homosexuality.

Validity vs. Reliability In Testing

Validity refers to accuracy of a test while reliability refers to consistency/repeatability as a means of measurement. For example, a depression test actually measures depressive symptoms (valid), but someone who scores high on a test should get around the same score if they take a similar test the next week (reliable score).

Cognitive Therapies

Aim to provide a model of effective functioning and can include relaxation and visualization techniques.

Rational-emotional Behavior Therapy

(Albert Ellis) A form of cognitive-behavioral therapy, helps individuals identify and challenge self-defeating thoughts and beliefs to improve emotional well-being and behavior.

Somatic Symptom Disorder

Also known as somatoform disorder, is a mental health condition where individuals experience physical symptoms, often intense and distressing, that are not attributable to a medical cause. These symptoms can include pain, fatigue, dizziness, or other physical ailments, and they are accompanied by significant distress and impairment in daily functioning.

Tardive Dyskinesia

A side effect of antidepressants characterized by involuntary, rhythmic, and repetitive movements, often affecting the mouth, face, and limbs.