psyc exam 2 - Chapter 5-7

What is learning?

Any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice.

Who discovered Classical Conditioning?

Ivan Pavlov.

What is classical conditioning?

Learning to make an involuntary response to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produces the response.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

In Pavlov’s experiment, the UCS was food.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

In Pavlov’s experiment, the UCR was drool.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

In Pavlov’s experiment, the CS was the bell.

Conditioned Response (CR)

In Pavlov’s experiment, the CR was drool that occurred in response to the bell.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

In Pavlov's experiment, the NS was the bell before it was conditioned.

What is extinction in classical conditioning?

The disappearance or weakening of a learned response following the removal of the unconditioned stimulus.

What is spontaneous recovery?

The reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred.

What is conditioned taste aversion?

Development of a nausea or aversive response to a particular taste because that taste was followed by a nausea reaction.

What is operant conditioning?

The learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses.

What is reinforcement?

Any event or stimulus that increases the probability that the response will occur again.

Primary Reinforcer

A reinforcer that is naturally reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need.

Secondary Reinforcer

A reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer.

Positive Reinforcement

Reinforcement of a response by the addition or experiencing of a pleasurable stimulus.

Negative Reinforcement

Reinforcement of a response by the removal or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus.

Fixed Ratio Schedule

A schedule where a certain number of responses must occur before reinforcement is given, always the same number.

Variable Ratio Schedule

A schedule where the number of responses required for reinforcement varies.

Fixed Interval Schedule

A schedule where the amount of time between reinforcement is always the same.

Variable Interval Schedule

A schedule where the time between reinforcements varies.

What is punishment?

Any event or object that makes a response less likely to happen again.

Punishment by application (positive punishment)

The punishment of a response by the addition or experiencing of an unpleasant stimulus.

Punishment by removal (negative punishment)

The punishment of a response by removing a pleasurable stimulus.

What makes punishment more effective?

It should be immediate, consistent, and paired with reinforcement of the right behavior.

What is observational learning?

Learning new behavior by watching a model perform that behavior.

What are the three parts of memory?

Encoding, storage, and retrieval.

What is encoding?

Converting environmental and mental stimuli into memorable brain codes.

What is storage?

Holding onto encoded information.

What is retrieval?

Pulling information from storage.

What is sensory memory?

A brief storage system for sensory information.

What is echoic memory?

Brief memory for what you hear.

What is iconic memory?

Brief memory for what you see.

What is the 'magic number 7'?

The number of items that can be held in short-term memory is 7 plus or minus 2.

What is long-term memory?

Relatively permanent memory with an 'unlimited' capacity.

Implicit vs. Explicit Memory

Implicit memory is non-declarative, while explicit memory is declarative and conscious.

What is semantic memory?

General knowledge and facts.

What is episodic memory?

Personal memories that you know.

What is the encoding specificity principle?

Memory is improved if related information is available during retrieval.

What is the serial position effect?

The tendency to recall items at the beginning and end of a list more readily than those in the middle.

What are flashbulb memories?

Automatic encoding of memories associated with strong emotional events.

What is proactive interference?

Earlier learned information interferes with information learned later.

What is retroactive interference?

Later learned information interferes with information learned earlier.

What is retrograde amnesia?

Loss of memory from the point of trauma backwards.

What is anterograde amnesia?

Inability to form new long-term memories following trauma.

What are mental images?

Pictures in your mind when you think of something.

What is a concept?

A mental category used to group objects, events, and characteristics.

What are formal concepts?

Concepts defined by specific rules or features.

What are natural concepts?

Concepts formed from real-world experience.

What is a prototype?

An example that closely matches the defining characteristics of a concept.

What is trial and error?

A problem-solving method where multiple possible solutions are tried until one is successful.

What are algorithms?

Step-by-step procedures that always produce the correct solution if followed.

What is a heuristic?

An educated guess that narrows down possible solutions.

What is functional fixedness?

A block to problem solving that comes from thinking about objects only in their typical functions.

What is creativity?

The process of solving problems by combining ideas or behaviors in new ways.

What is convergent thinking?

Problem-solving leading to a single answer.

What is divergent thinking?

Thinking that generates many ideas or possibilities.

What is intelligence?

The ability to learn from experiences and adapt to new situations.

What is Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences?

The theory that there are multiple types of intelligence, such as musical, movement, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist AND Verbal-linguistic, Logical-mathematical, Visual-spatial, Existentialist

What is Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence?

A theory consisting of Analytical, Practical, and Creative intelligence.

What is reliability in testing?

The tendency of a test to produce the same scores each time it is given.

What is validity in testing?

The degree to which a test measures what it’s supposed to measure.

What is intellectual disability?

It must meet this criteria:

1. IQ falls below 70

2. Adaptive behavior is severely deficient for a person of a particular chronological age

3. These limitations must be present before the age of 18 (must begin in the developmental period)

What is language?

A system for combining symbols to communicate meaning.

What is syntax?

The system of rules for combining words to form sentences.

What is semantics?

Rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences.