Unit 1 Exam Review: Part 1

Homeostasis

The study of how living organisms function

Physiology

The study of the disease status (physiological dysfunction)

Pathophysiology

The study of the structures and parts of the body

Anatomy

What are the four types of cells in the human body

Muscle cells, Epithelial cells, connective tissue cells, and neurons

Which cells have the function of generating/contracting movement and force through mechanical activities?

Muscle cells

What are the 3 different types of muscle cells?

Skeletal, Cardiac, and Smooth

Which cells from the muscle cells are attached through other structures to bones and produce movements of the limbs and trunk.

• Attached to skin and produces facial expressions

Skeletal cells

Which subdivision of muscle cells are the only ones with voluntary movement?

Skeletal cells

Subdivision of muscle cells that are only found in the heart.

Generate force that allows the heart to pump blood into circulation (involuntary)

Cardiac cells

Subdivision of muscle cells that make up the part of the walls of many of the tubes in the body, their contractions decrease the diameter of the tube (involuntary).

Smooth muscle cells

Examples of structures with smooth muscle cells:

blood vessels and gastrointestinal tract

Which cells have the function of forming barriers for protection and selectively secret and absorb ions and organic molecules and its surface rests on a basement membrane to anchor it.

Lines the surfaces of the tubular and hollow structures within the body

Epithelial Cells

What are the four characterizations of epithelial cells

cuboidal, columnar, squamous, and ciliated

Which type of epithelial tissue is arranged in a single cell thick tissue

Simple Epithelium

Which type of epithelial tissue is arranged in multiple layers of cells

Stratified Epithelium

Which cells have the function to connect, anchor, and support the structures of the body and also form extracellular mix (ECM).

Connective-tissue cells

Which cells consist of fibers like collagen and elastin

connective tissue cells

Type of connective tissue found in loose meshwork’s of cells and fibers underlying most epithelial layers.

Loose connective tissue

type of connective tissue that includes the rough, rigid tissue, that makes up tendons and ligaments.

Dense connective tissue

Examples of connective tissue:

Blood, tendons and ligaments, cartilage, and adipose (fat) tissues.

What provides a scaffold for cellular attachments and transmits information in the form of chemical messengers to the cells?

Extracellular Mix

Which cells have the function to initiate, integrate, and conduct electrical signals to other cells and are part of the nervous system

Neurons

What structures are extensions made of parts of neurons and connective tissue to carry signals between the nervous system and other parts of the body

Nerves

A collection of neurons form:

Nervous Tissue like the Spinal Cord or Brain

What are the major organs in the ____ system?

What are the major organs in the circulatory system?

Heart, Blood Vessels, Blood

What are the major organs in the digestive system?

Mouth, Salivary Glands, Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach, Small and Large Intestines, anus, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder.

What are the major organs in the endocrine system?

All glands or organs secreting hormones: Pancreas, testes, ovaries, hypothalamus, kidneys, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, stomach, small intestine, liver, adipose tissue, heart, and pineal gland; and endocrine cells

What are the major organs in the immune system?

White Blood Cells and their organs of production

What are the major organs in the integumentary system?

Skin

What are the major organs in the lymphatic system?

Lymph vessels, lymph nodes

What are the major organs in the musculoskeletal system?

Cartilage, bone, ligaments, tendons, joints, skeletal muscle

What are the major organs in the nervous system?

Brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves and ganglia, sense organs

What are the major organs in the reproductive system?

Male: testes, penis, and associated ducts and glands

Female: ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, and mammary glands

What are the major organs in the respiratory system?

Nose. pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs

What are the major organs in the urinary system?

Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra

Which organ system has the function of transporting blood throughout the body?

Circulatory

Which organ system has the function of regulating and coordinating many activities in the body through hormones, including growth, metabolism, reproduction, blood pressure, and water/electrolyte balance?

Endocrine

Which organ system has the function of digesting and absorbing nutrients and water and eliminating wastes?

Digestive

Which organ system has the function of defending the body against pathogens?

Immune

Which organ system has the function of protecting against injury and dehydration, defending against pathogens, and regulating body temperature?

Integumentary

Which organ system has the function of returning extracellular fluid to the blood, participating in immune defenses, and absorbing fats from the digestive system?

Lymphatic

Which organ system has the function of supporting, protecting, and moving the body and producing blood cells?

Musculoskeletal

Which organ system has the function of regulating and coordinating many activities in the body, detecting and responding to changes in the internal and external environments, and contributing to consciousness, learning, memory, and emotion?

Nervous

Which organ system has the function of producing gametes and supporting reproduction?

Reproductive

Which organ system has the function of exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide and regulating hydrogen ion concentration in body fluids?

Respiratory

Which organ system has the function of regulating plasma composition through controlled excretion of ions, water, and organic wastes?

Urinary

What is the process of maintaining a stable internal environment?

Homeostasis

How is homeostasis regulated?

It is regulated primarily by negative feedback mechanisms that detect changes and produce responses that counteract those changes.

What detects changes in a variable during homeostatic control?

Sensors (Receptors)

What receives and processes information from the sensor and determines the appropriate response?

Integrating Center/ Control Center

What carries out the response that changes the variable?

Effector

What are the three components of a homeostatic control system?

Sensor (receptor) → Integrating center (control center) → Effector

Process within the homeostatic control mechanisms that can be modified by learning. Anticipates the change before it occurs and initiates a response.

Feedforward Regulation

A segment of DNA that contains the information needed to specify a polypeptide/protein.

A unit of hereditary information.

Genes

What are the functions of genes?

To specify the amino acid sequence of a particular protein.

What is the structure of a gene?

 A sequence of DNA nucleotides containing the genetic information; the nucleotide sequence is organized into triplets, with each triplet specifying an amino acid or signaling termination

All of the genetic information/genes of an individual. Contains roughly 20,000 protein-encoding genes about 3 billion nucleotides.

Genome

How is a genome structured?

DNA is packaged with proteins called histones into nucleosomes, which are organized into chromosomes. Human body cells have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).

Occurs in the nucleus and it transfers genetic information from the DNA to the RNA

Transcription

Occurs at the ribosomes in the cytoplasm and it’s when mRNA synthesizes into protein.

Translation

What is the difference between transcription and translation?

Transcription: DNA → mRNA; occurs in the nucleus and uses RNA polymerase to make an RNA copy of a gene.
Translation: mRNA → protein; occurs at ribosomes in the cytoplasm and uses tRNA and amino acids to build a protein.

What are the first steps of transcription?

• RNA polymerase binds to the promoter of a gene and separates the DNA strands.

• Free ribonucleotides base-pair with the DNA template.

• RNA polymerase links the ribonucleotides together to form a primary RNA transcript.

What happens after the primary RNA transcript is formed?

• RNA splicing removes introns and joins exons together.

• The final product is mRNA.

• The mRNA leaves the nucleus and travels to a ribosome for translation.

What are the first steps of translation?

• mRNA passes from the nucleus to the cytoplasm and binds to the small subunit of a ribosome.

• Amino acids attach to their corresponding tRNA molecules.

• The codon on mRNA pairs with the anticodon on tRNA.

What happens during the later steps of translation?

• The amino acids are joined by peptide bonds to form the growing polypeptide chain.

• The tRNA is released after giving up its amino acid.

• These steps repeat until a termination sequence is reached.

• The completed protein is released from the ribosome.

Carries genetic information for making proteins

mRNA

Forms part of the organelle that carries out translation

rRNA

Binds amino acids and facilitates their incorporation into the growing protein molecule.

tRNA

What are the steps involved in RNA synthesis from a DNA template?

• RNA polymerase binds to the promoter of a gene and separates the DNA strands.

• Ribonucleotides base-pair with the DNA template.

• RNA polymerase links the ribonucleotides together to form a primary RNA transcript.

What happens to the primary RNA transcript before it becomes mature mRNA?

• Introns are removed and exons are spliced together.

• The final product is mRNA, which leaves the nucleus and goes to a ribosome for translation.

Both the synthesis and breakdown of organic molecules required for cell structure and function and the release of chemical energy used for cell functions.

Metabolism

Synthesis/building of larger molecules from smaller molecules; the synthesis of a triglyceride.

Anabolism

Breakdown of larger molecules into smaller molecules; the breakdown of a triglyceride to glycerol and fatty acids.

Catabolism

Reaction rates are determined by:

Reactant concentration, activation energy, temperature, and presence of a catalyst

A protein (biological) catalyst that lowers the activation energy of chemical reactions, allowing them to occur faster.

Enzymes

What binds with enzymes at active sites to form an enzyme-substrate complex.

Substrates

What is the substrate converted into after it binds to the enzyme?

Products

Which is the primary molecule used by cells to transfer/use of energy. It is continually produced and used, rather than stored in large amounts.

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

What is the function of ATP?

To provide energy for cellular processes like muscle contractions, active transport, and chemical synthesis.

What is the body’s main long term energy storage molecule?

Fat (Triglycerides)

Purpose of Fats (Lipids):

Major source of stored energy, used for energy, insulation, and protection of organs.

Purpose of Proteins:

Used to build and repair body structures. Make enzymes, hormones, receptors, and other functional molecules and can also be used as an energy source when needed.

Purpose: what are the substances needed for normal or optimal body function that the body cannot make at all or in sufficient amounts; must be obtained from the diet?

Essential Nutrients

Examples of essential nutrients:

Amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, and water

Why is water included in essential nurtrients?

Because the body loses it faster through urine, etc. than it can restore it.

A cell organelle that is a series of closely apposed, flattened membranous sacs

Golgi Apparatus

What is the main function of the Golgi Apparatus?

To modify, sort, and package proteins arriving from the rough ER

• Receives proteins from the Rough ER and packages them into transport/secretory vesicles for delivery to other organelles or secretion outside the cell

Which specialized cell junctions firmly attach adjacent cells to each other and provide structural strength and integrity to tissues.

Desmosomes

• important in tissues exposed to stretching, such as skin.

  • It is characterized by accumulations of proteins known as “dense plaques”

  • They’re anchoring points for cadherins, proteins that extend and reach out into the extracellular fluid in order to link up with others in the cells next to them.

Desmosomes

What is a substance or molecule that increases the rate of a chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy required for the reaction.

• Doesn’t change the final energy different between reactants and products

Catalyst