Unit 3: American Revolution, Constitution

French and Indian War, American Revolution, Constitution, Federalists v Anti-Federalists

The French and Indian War (1754-1763)

Part of the Seven Years’ War, it was caused by colonial expansion leading to a conflict between English settlers and the French, allied with most Native Americans (though they fought on both sides) since English expansionism hurt them more than the French did.

Native Americans After the French and Indian War

Dissatisfaction with British rule in the Great Lakes region led to Pontiac’s Rebellion. Ottawa chief Pontiac led tribes in the Ohio Valley and attacked colonial outposts.

In response, the Paxton Boys Scots-Irish frontiersmen in Pennsylvania attacked the Susquehannock tribe.

Albany Plan of Union (1754)

Benjamin Franklin proposed a unified colonial government and a tax system for the colonies’ defense, but the plan was rejected.

Taxation Without Representation

Financing the French and Indian War created a large debt. The British believed that the colonies should pay it while the colonies believed they had fulfilled their obligation by providing soldiers.

Parliament imposed new regulations and taxes, including the Sugar Act (1764) taxing molasses, the Currency Act (1764) and the Proclamation of 1763 which avoided disputes with natives by preventing colonists from expanding past the Proclamation Line into the Appalachian Mountains.

Britain ending its policy of salutary neglect caused resentment which was worsened by economic depression. However, the colonies remained divided so protest was uncoordinated and ineffective.

Taxation Without Representation

The Stamp Act (1765) worsened grievances and unified the colonies in opposition. The Sons of Liberty formed and helped to organize protests.

James Otis introduced the “no taxation without representation” argument. The colonies had little representation in Parliament and wanted the right to determine their own taxes. Patrick Henry drafted the Virginia Stamp Act Resolves asserting colonists’ right to self-government.

The Stamp Act was repealed but the Declaratory Act asserted Britain’s right to tax in the colonies, so little ground was made.

The Townshend Acts (1767-1768)

Imposed more taxes and strengthened the influence of the British government, suspended New York legislature for refusing to comply with the Quartering Act, and instituted writs of assistance(licenses that gave the British the power to search any place they suspected of hiding smuggled goods).

The Massachusetts Circular Letter united assemblies in protest. Britain’s attempts to dissolve the letter further angered colonists, who rallied and boycotted.

The boycotts affected British merchants, who then joined the protest. Women were essential in replacing British imports. Some of the Acts were repealed.

The Quartering Act of 1765

Stationed British troops in America and forced the colonists to feed and house them.

The Boston Massacre was a conflict between British soldiers and a mob of colonists that resulted in the deaths of five colonists. Propaganda fueled the anger of the colonists.

• John Adams defended the soldiers in court, establishing a tradition of giving a fair trial to all who are accused.

Still, very few radicals suggested independence.

Tensions Continue to Build

When the British began to enforce the Townshend Acts, colonists set up Committees of Correspondence to trade ideas. Writers like Mercy Otis Warren called for revolution. John Dickinson's "Letters From a Farmer in Pennsylvania" united colonists.

The Tea Act granted the East India Tea Company a tea monopoly and kept the tea taxes. This resulted in the Boston Tea Party which the British saw as rebellion and imposed the Coercive (Intolerable) Acts which closed the Boston Harbor, took over the Massachusetts government, and expanded the Quartering Act.

The Quebec Act gave Catholics in Quebec religious freedom, which the colonists had wanted, and expanded the Quebec Territory, impeding Westward expansion.

Congress

The First Continental Congress (1774) brought the colonies together(except Georgia) to address colonial grievances. It formed the Continental Association, which organized boycotts and set up committees of observation, de facto governments that replaced British-sanctioned assemblies and promoted acts of subordination.

The Start of the American Revolution

The British attempted to confiscate weapons and arrest ringleaders. Colonial militia resisted, resulting in the “shot heard ‘round' the world” in the Battle of Concord and beginning the American Revolution (1775-1783).

Patriots, mainly white Protestant property owners and urban artisans in New England, tried to rally the citizens to the revolution.

• Slaves preferred the British. An increase in slave insurrections made the South less eager for revolution. Pacifist Quakers in Pennsylvania wanted to avoid war. Most did not support the revolution.

Preparing for War

The Second Continental Congress prepared for war. It established a Continental Army, printing money, and government offices. George Washington, a well-liked Southerner, was chosen to lead the army.

John Dickinson’s Olive Branch Petition, which was adopted by the Continental Congress, was a last attempt for reconciliation but failed.

Thomas Paine published Common Sense (1776). It advocated for independence and republicanism over monarchy. It reached a wide audience, including those who couldn’t read, helping to increase support for the patriot cause.

The Declaration of Independence (1776)

Listed colonial grievances against the British Crown and articulated the principle of individual liberty and the government’s responsibility to serve the people

The signing of the Declaration made the Revolutionary War a war for independence.

It asserted that all men are created equal and have certain inalienable rights and became a source of inspiration for movements for civil rights and freedom.

The End of the American Revolution

The Continental Army struggled to recruit good soldiers and eventually recruited Black people. Ben Franklin negotiated the Franco-American Alliance which brought the French into the war.

The Battle of Yorktown (1781) ended the American Revolution. British general Cornwallis was surrounded by the French navy and George Washington’s troops.

The Treaty of Paris of 1783 granted the United States independence and generous territorial rights.

Articles of Confederation

The first national constitution of the US, it created a weak central government: the federal government could not raise an army, enforce taxes or a military draft, or regulate trade, and had no executive or judicial branch. Each state had one vote.

Shays’s Rebellion, an armed uprising by Western Massachusetts farmers led by Daniel Shays against high taxes, was put down by private militia. It highlighted the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation and led to the Constitution.

The Constitutional Convention

Alexander Hamilton convened the Annapolis Convention but few showed up. More delegates attended the Constitutional Convention, which aimed to revise the Articles of Confederation.

William Paterson’s New Jersey Plan called for equal representation from each state, while James Madison’s Virginia Plan called for representation based on population size, as well as a government system based on checks and balances.

The Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise) blended the NJ and VA plans for a bicameral legislature.

Results of the Constitution (Ratified 1788)

It established a House of Representatives elected by the people, a Senate elected by state legislatures, and a President and VP elected by the Electoral College.

Separation of powers of the three branches of government kept each other in check. The executive branch was led by the president, the legislative branch was composed of bicameral Congress, and the judicial branch composed of Supreme Court.

The Federalists supported the Constitution. James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay published the Federalist Papers. Anti-Federalists opposed it because of the lack of a Bill of Rights.

• The Bill of Rights, the first 10 amendments to the Constitution, was added in 1791.

The Washington Presidency

George Washington was unanimously voted by the Electoral College to become the First President. He stepped down after two terms, setting a precedent.

He created a cabinet, the president’s chief group of advisors.

During the French Revolution, Washington issued the Neutrality Proclamation. He emphasized US neutrality in his Farewell Address, affecting foreign policy.

Hamilton v Jefferson

Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson feared monarchy and tyranny and favored a weak federal government focused on defense and international commerce. He supported revolution and republican ideals, including the French Revolution.

Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton favored a strong central government and opposed US involvement in the French Revolution.

Differences between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans—later became the Democrats—led by Jefferson began the two-party system.

The National Bank

Hamilton proposed a National Bank to regulate and strengthen the economy. Strict constructionists led by Jefferson and Madison argued that it was unconstitutional.

Hamilton, a broad constructionist, used the “elastic clause”, or the Necessary and Proper Clause. Washington agreed with Hamilton.

Hamilton's Financial Program and Whiskey Rebellion

Hamilton proposed that the government assume states’ debts from the war. This plan favored northern banks, as many Southern states had already paid off their debts. Jefferson and Madison agreed to give Hamilton the power to deal with the debt in exchange for the nation’s capital to be moved south (Washington D.C.).

Hamilton implemented a whiskey tax. Farmers resisted, instigating the Whiskey Rebellion (1791). Washington dispatched militia to end the rebellion, demonstrating the new government’s power to respond. The rebellion highlighted the class tensions between inland farmers and coastal elites.

Foreign Affairs

John Jay negotiated Jay’s Treaty to address British troops in the Northwest and free trade violations. It prevented war but was considered too pro-British and undermined US sovereignty. It was supported by Federalists but opposed by Democratic Republicans and most of the public.

Pinckney’s Treaty (Treaty of San Lorenzo) with Spain allowed the US to freely use the Mississippi River and removed Spanish forts on US territory.

Republican Motherhood

Women’s roles emerged by the 1800s. They were still excluded from politics but were in charge of teaching children morals and Republican values.

Advocates for female education argued that educated women would be better mothers.

Adams Presidency

John Adams, a Federalist, became the second US president, with Jefferson as VP. Adams was hands off, often allowing Jefferson’s rival Hamilton to take charge.

His greatest achievement was the XYZ affair. After the US signed the Jay Treaty with Britain, France began seizing US ships. Although he could not avoid the Quasi-Wars, undeclared naval skirmishes with the French, he avoided an all-out war.

The low point of Adams’ tenure was the Alien and Sedition Acts. It regulated anti-government speech and allowed the government to expel foreigners, aiming to destroy new immigrants’ support for the Democratic-Republicans.

• Jefferson and Madison drafted the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions which argued that states could judge the constitutionality of federal laws and nullified the Alien and Sedition Acts. However, they did not prevent the Acts from being enforced.