Understanding Human Development: Approaches and Theories

applied developmental science.

A field that studies lifespan interactions between individuals and the contexts in which they live and applies research findings to real-world settings; findings can be used to influence social policy and create interventions.

behaviorism.

A theoretical approach that studies how observable behavior is controlled by the physical and social environment through conditioning.

bioecological systems theory.

A theory introduced by Bronfenbrenner that emphasizes the role of context in development, positing that contexts are organized into a series of systems in which individuals are embedded and that interact with one another and the person to influence development.

case study.

An in-depth examination of a single individual (or small group of individuals).

child assent.

A child’s agreement to participate in a study.

chronosystem.

In bioecological systems theory, refers to how people and contexts change over time.

cognitive development.

Maturation of mental processes and tools individuals use to obtain knowledge, think, and solve problems.

cognitive-developmental theory.

A perspective posited by Piaget that views individuals as active explorers of their world, learning by interacting with the world around them, and describes cognitive development as progressing through stages.

cohort.

A generation of people born at the same time, influenced by the same historical and cultural conditions.

confidentiality.

Researchers generally promise participants that their responses will not be disclosed to others.

context.

Unique conditions in which a person develops, including aspects of the physical and social environment such as family, neighborhood, culture, and historical time period.

continuous change.

An aspect of development that unfolds slowly and gradually over time.

correlational research.

A research design that measures relationships among participants’ measured characteristics, behaviors, and development.

cross-sectional research study.

A developmental research design that compares people of different ages at a single point in time to infer age differences.

culture.

A set of customs, knowledge, attitudes, and values shared by a group of people and learned through interactions with group members.

dependent variable.

The behavior under study in an experiment; it is expected to be affected by changes in the independent variable.

development.

The processes by which individuals grow and change, as well as the ways in which they stay the same over time.

developmental science.

The study of human development at all points in life, from conception to death.

discontinuous change.

An aspect of development that is characterized by abrupt change.

domains of development.

A type or area of development, such as physical, cognitive, or socioemotional.

emerging adulthood.

A developmental period between adolescence and early adulthood, extending from the completion of secondary education to the adoption of adult roles.

ethology.

Emphasizes the evolutionary basis of behavior and its adaptive value in ensuring survival of a species.

evolutionary developmental theory.

A perspective that applies principles of evolution and scientific knowledge about the interactive influence of genetic and environmental mechanisms to understand the adaptive value of developmental changes that are experienced with age.

exosystem.

In bioecological systems theory, social settings in which an individual does not participate but has an indirect influence on development.

experimental research.

A research design that permits inferences about cause and effect by exerting control, systematically manipulating a variable, and studying the effects on measured variables.

hypothesis.

A proposed explanation for a phenomenon that can be tested.

independent variable.

The factor proposed to change the behavior under study in an experiment; it is systematically manipulated during an experiment.

information processing theory.

A perspective that uses a computer analogy to describe how the mind receives information and manipulates, stores, recalls, and uses it to solve problems.

informed consent.

A participant’s informed (knowledge of the scope of the research and potential harm and benefits of participating), rational, and voluntary agreement to participate in a study.

intersectionality.

The dynamic interrelations of social categories, such as gender, race and ethnicity, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, immigration status, age, and disabilities, and the interwoven systems of power and privilege that accompany social category membership.

lifespan human development.

An approach to studying human development that examines ways in which individuals grow, change, and stay the same throughout their lives, from conception to death.

longitudinal research study.

A developmental study in which one group of participants is studied repeatedly to infer age changes.

macrosystem.

In bioecological systems theory, the sociohistorical context—cultural values, laws, and societal norms and values—in which the microsystem, mesosystem, and exosystem are embedded, posing indirect influences on individuals.

mesosystem.

In bioecological systems theory, the relations and interactions among microsystems.

microsystem.

In bioecological systems theory, the innermost level of context, which includes an individual’s immediate physical and social environment.

naturalistic observation.

A research method in which a researcher views and records an individual’s behavior in natural, real-world settings.

nature-nurture debate.

A debate within the field of human development regarding whether development is caused by nature (genetics or heredity) or nurture (the physical and social environment).

observational learning.

Learning that occurs by watching and imitating models, as posited by social learning theory.

ontogenetic development.

Developmental changes within the individual, including interacting biological, cognitive, and socioemotional traits.

open-ended interview.

A research method in which a researcher asks a participant questions using a flexible, conversational style and may vary the order of questions, probe, and ask follow-up questions based on the participant’s responses.

passive consent.

a type of consent procedure in which parents are notified about the research and must reply if they do not want their child to participate.

physical development.

Body maturation, including body size, proportion, appearance, health, and perceptual abilities.

plasticity.

A characteristic of development refers to malleability or openness to change in response to experience.

psychoanalytic theory.

A perspective introduced by Freud that development and behavior are stage-like and influenced by inner drives, memories, and conflicts of which an individual is unaware and cannot control.

punishment.

In operant conditioning, the process in which a behavior is followed by an aversive or unpleasant outcome that decreases the likelihood of a response.

questionnaire.

A research method in which researchers use a survey or set of questions to collect data from large samples of people.

reciprocal determinism.

A perspective positing that individuals and their environment interact and influence each other.

reinforcement.

In operant conditioning, the process by which a behavior is followed by a desirable outcome increases the likelihood of a response.

resilience.

The ability to adapt to serious adversity.

respect for autonomy.

The ethical principle that states researchers have a special obligation to respect participants’ autonomy, their ability to make and implement decisions.

responsibility.

The ethical principle that requires researchers to act responsibly by adhering to professional standards of conduct and clarifying their obligations and roles to others.

social learning theory.

An approach that emphasizes the role of modeling and observational learning over people’s behavior in addition to reinforcement and punishment.

sociocultural theory.

Vygotsky’s theory that individuals acquire culturally relevant ways of thinking through social interactions with members of their culture.

socioemotional development.

Maturation of social and emotional functioning, which includes changes in personality, emotions, personal perceptions, social skills, and interpersonal relationships.

structured interview.

A research method in which each participant is asked the same set of questions in the same way.

structured observation.

An observational measure in which an individual’s behavior is viewed and recorded in a controlled environment; a situation created by the experimenter.

theory.

An organized set of observations to describe, explain, and predict a phenomenon