PSYO 322 - Final

- About how many youth in grades 9, and 10 identify as transgender, genderqueer, gender fluid, or unsure of their gender identity
- what gender identities are understood less

- ~ 3%
- those that fall outside of the gender binary are understood less than M, F, or trans

- At what age can toddlers reliably use gender labels in their speech
- gender constancy
- at what age do kids develop gender constancy
- when does rigid gender constancy relax

- by 14-18 months
- an understanding of gender as a permanent characteristic
- by 3-5 years old
- in middle childhood as kids get better at abstract thinking, etc

- what plays a big role in when start to understand their own gender identity

- context, such as the exposure and acceptance of different identities in their close circles

1. Identity non-affirmation:
2. Identity invalidation:

1. a non-binary identity is recognized, but an individual's right to claim that identity is questioned

2. the idea that non-binary identity is all together dismissed

-> the experience of conflicts of sharing identity to others only to be invalidates versus not sharing identity and being misread

- When did the Canadian Census first ask about gender identity

- what is the focus of research on gender-diverse adolescents

- 2021

- stressors, discrimination, and mental health disparities

1. Socialization:
- when does it start
2. by what age to kids spend most of their time playing w/ same-sex peers
--> it is an example of what?

1. effects of others, and society
- often before the baby is born
2. by 3 yrs old
--> gendered reinforcement and socialization

Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory
- the theory:
- how does one develop "gender role standards" over time
- self-efficacy:

- learning by observing others
- by observing same-sex/gender models
belief that you possess the resources to carry out some behaviour or achieve a goal

Kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory of gender
-> note: he loosely took from Piaget's theory
- the theory:
1. Gender consistency
2. Gender identity
3. What happens once kids identify w/ a specific gender?

- kids develop cognitive structures to understand their own gender and the gender of others (becomes more complex in each stage)

1. knowing gender is stable (social construct)
2. child identifies w/ own gender role
3. they start to see gender as more internal and less external

Gender schema theory
- the theory:
1. gender schemas
2. what do schemas do
3. what occurs once gender identity emerges
4. what is one of the earliest categories kids understand

- ideas we have about gender (our schemas) are shaped by the cultures we live in.
1. child constructs gender understanding
2. direct person's attention and behaviour
3. process gender-related behaviour and pay more attention to own-gender info
4. the distinction btwn. male and female

1. Kohlberg's theory: at age 6-7 kids develop gender constancy, which is when?
2. Gender schema theory: what age does this begin w/ what?
3. similarities: both propose that once kids have developed a stable gender identity, they are ________

1. kids identify w/ their gender role
2. during preschool w/ the emergence of gender identity
3. motivated to learn and practice the skills and activities that "go w/" their gender

Gender intensification hypothesis:

- related to puberty and more pressure from?

as adolescence approaches, there is more pressure from others to conform more closely to expected gender roles

- the outside to start acting more "adult" and in line w/ your gender

Gender intensification in Adolescence
1. what do parents worry abt.?
2. teen peers are less tolerant of what?
3. conformity to traditional roles intensifies when?
4. research evidence on this is?

1. "inappropriate" interest, and activities
2. cross-gender behaviours
3. once teens start dating
4. evidence is clear, but hard to find

Gender & Achievement
1. disadvantages classroom for boys and girls
2. learned helplessness
- how is it seen in girls in school

1. girls show less confidence in being able to succeed in tasks; boys more likely to be targets of disciplinary action and be under-achievers

2. belief that outcomes are uncontrollable and that their efforts are pointless
- they tend to rate themselves as being less confident in math and attribute any success in it to luck

Gender & Achievement
1. competitiveness in boys and girls

2. Stereotype threat
- how is it a cycle

1. boys & M tend to prefer competitive situations and might actually seek them out; girls & W tend to avoid and NOT prefer them

2. people are/feel at risk of conforming to/confirming negative stereotypes about their social group
- the fear or anxiety caused by confirming a stereotype can interfere w/ performance in a way to confirm the stereotype

1. what happens to self-esteem during adolescence
2. what affects girl's body image during adolescence
3. who is more affected by personal relationships

1. it declines for both genders
2. the natural/healthy weight gain that comes w/ puberty
3. girls

1. who tends to have poorer self-esteem during this time
- what is the trend

2. Reasons to have a "False self"
- Definition

3. Gilligan - what does it mean when girls "lose voice" in adolescence
- what is not valued

1. girls
- declines the quickest during early adolescence (even more for those who hit puberty early)

2. pretences to protect relationships
- a defensive facade created in response to environmental pressures or failures
--> mainly presented by girls?

3. girls silence their own need to preserve relationships
- girls' sensitivity to others

1. emotional differences result from
2. depression levels btwn. boys and girls during childhood
- what happens w/ puberty
3. rumination
4. who is more aware of their own emotions
5. what is a major cause of depression

1. experiences and expectations
2. levels are equal
- 2x as many girls are depressed
3. brooding abt. problems and negative emotions
4. relationship problems

1. who is more physically aggressive
2. pattern of aggression across adolescence
3. relationship aggression:
4. girls use more?
5. boys use more?

1. boys (shows up as early as toddler years)
2. aggression declines
3. harming another's social relationships
4. relational than physical aggression
5. physical than relational

1. who has larger groups of friends
2. whose friendships are more about the relationship, support, and involvement
3. who uses more conversation and self-disclosure

1. boys
2. girls
3. girls

1. general topics of convo in each gender group

2. co-rumination

1. girls - feelings and friends; boys - cars and sports

2. talking excessively to others abt. problems w/out moving towards a solution; aka.
dwelling on problems w/ friends

1. co-rumination involves

- it can occur in many relationships but is generally studied in?

2. rumination can show up at what age
- even at this age is associated w/?

1. rehashing problems; mutually-encouraging problem-talk; speculation abt. problems; dwelling on negative feelings

- childhood/adolescent friendships since developmentally that is where it first shows up

2. as early as 8/9yrs
- depressive symptoms

unique features of co-rumination
1. it is ____
2. it involves disclosure and conveys what to others?
3. what type of relationships does it usually occur in

1. social (it involves other people
2. trust (which can lead to closer relationships)
3. high-quality relationships

Co-rumination
1. who is most likely to co-ruminate in adolescence
2. what does having a mother who co-ruminates cause
3. tends to show up in?
4. what do they focus on
5. what is the #1 predictor

1. girls (w/ same-gender friends)
2. children who co-ruminate
3. late childhood to mid-adolescence
4. interpersonal problems
5. gender

Co-rumination
1. why is it socially-reinforcing
2. what is it not good for
- linked w/
3. what gender pattern changes in adulthood

1. it is associated w. relationship closeness
2. mental health
- anxiety and depression (might explain gender differences)
3. adult M become more likely to participate w/ different gender friends

Even though it's bad Why do people Co-Ruminate
1. it is socially reinforcing, so it
2. social-cognitive processes

1. feels good to get support from other people
2. makes problems seem even bigger and harder to resolve than they actually are - which can contribute to anxious and depressive symptoms
--> those who co-ruminate may not see this connection

1. Adolescence marks the first restructuring of what?

2. Possible selves
3. Future orientation

1. one's sense of self at a time when they can appreciate the significance of these changes

2. People's sense of the different selves might they might become various circumstances and w/ various courses of action
3. The extent to which an individual is able and inclined to think abt. the potential consequences of the decisions and choices

1. Self concept

2. Self-esteem
- Baseline
- Barometric

3. Identity

1. the organized set of thoughts, ideas, and perceptions that people hold abt. themselves

2. the set of positive or negative evaluations and feelings that people hold abt. themselves
- the general level of positive or negative feelings abt. the self that is fairly stable over time
- Temporary changes in positive or negative feelings abt. the self that occur in response to particular incidents

3. the psychological structure that gives people a sense of personal continuity across situations and across their individual history

1. Barometric self-esteem:

2. what happens to self-esteem after puberty

3. Impact on girls

4. difference btwn. baseline changes and barometric changes of self-esteem

1. temporary swings up and down

2. drops sharply w/ its onset

3. decline is more severe for girls than boys

4. baseline level changes developmentally; barometric changes over short time scales

1. What is most strongly related to self-esteem in adolescence

2. In relation to peers, who do teens value the opinions of most

3. Low self-esteem is linked to
- How can low self-esteem be combatted

1. physical appearance and peer acceptance

2. peers that are not as close to them (compared to those they are very close w/)

3. aggression, antisocial behaviour, poor school achievement
- increasing interpersonal skills, which can increase confidence and improve well-being

1. Stability

2. Self-consciousness

3. self-image stability

1. the extent to which individuals' relative ranking w/in a group on a particular trait stays more or less the same over time

2. degree to which an individual is preoccupied w/ their self-image

3. degree to which an individual's self-image changes from day to day

1. Self-image fluctuations are most likely btwn. what ages

2. What do early and middle adolescents show?

1. ages 12-14

2. lowest levels of self-esteem and highest levels of self-consciousness and shakiest self-image stability
--> aka. struggling the most in this area

Factors that influence adolescent's fluctuations in self-image
1. what does egocentrism do

2. adolescents learn that it is not always possible to tell what people are thinking on the basis of...

3. what are adolescents especially interested in

1. may make young adolescents painfully aware of others' rxns to their behaviour

2. how other people act or what they say

3. their peers' opinions of them

1. What is adolescents' self-esteem linked to more than anything else?

2. what do studies of age differences in self-esteem hide?

3. in regards to self-esteem, what are adolescents often unaware of?

1. feelings abt. their physical attractiveness

2. differences among people of the same age

3. of what contributes most to their self-esteem

1. who's self-esteem is generally higher
2. what happens to sex differences over time
3. among who are sex differences MOST pronounced
- among who are they LEAST pronounced
4. Sex differences is likely linked to

1. boys
2. they decrease
3. white and Hispanic teens
- Black teens
4. the high concern girls have abt. physical attractiveness

Black adolescents self esteem is generally ____ than White adolescents' which is ____ than that of Hispanics, Asians, or Indigenous

- higher

- higher

1. Black adolescents generally have?
2. what does a strong sense of ethnic identity do?
3. What does ethnic diversity impact
- those is minority groups are more prone to?

1. support and positive feedback from adults in Black community
2. enhances overall self-esteem
3. self-image
- self-esteem problems

1. what enhances self-esteem

2. what happens when approval of others (especially peers) has too much power

3. self-esteem derived from peers (rather than others) leads to?

1. approval from others, especially from peers and parents; success in school

2. adolescents are at risk of self-image problems

3. more behavioural problems and poorer school achievement

1. Adolescents success leads to improvements in
2. High self-esteem enhances
3. Low self-esteem may lead to

1. how adolescents feel abt. themselves (but the reverse is not true)

2. adolescents well-being

3. mental health, emotional, and behavioural problems (but relationship is complicated)

cycle of self-esteem consequences

1. Low self-esteem often discourages adolescents from

Low self-esteem -> Failure to seek social support -> loneliness -> (back to low self-esteem, etc.)

1. seeking out support from others (which can lead to feelings of loneliness

1. low self-esteem may lead to involvement in
2. high self-esteem is correlated w/
- b/c?

1. deviant activity, psychological distress, depression and victimization

2. higher alcohol use
- both are related to popularity

1. as adolescents mature intellectually, they come to conceive of themselves in...
2. more capable of considering...
3. more able to process...
4. more likely to use

1. more sophisticated and more differentiated ways
2. abstract concepts (that children)
3. large amnts. of info
4. complex, abstract, psychological self-characterizations
--> thoughts also more differentiated/better organized, more coherent, and related to each other

Differentiation of the Self-Concept
1. link traits and attributes describing themselves to...

2. what is taken into account

1. specific situations

2. who is doing the describing

Organization and Integration of the Self-Concept
1. Shift toward differentiation in self-conceptions accompanied by?
2. recognition of?
3. Initial stress abt. ____; recognition of ____ in the long run
4. able to distinguish btwn.?

1. better organization and integration

2. multifaceted, contradictory personality

3. inconsistencies; advantages

4. one's self, ideal self, and feared self

1. one's self
2. ideal self
3. feared self

1. who one really is
2. who one would like to be
3. who one most dreads becoming

False-Self Behaviour
1. adolescents become able to distinguish btwn. their...

2. False-self behaviour:
- linked to increased?

1. authentic and inauthentic selves

2. behaviour that intentionally presents a false impression to others
- depression and hopelessness

False-Self Behaviour
1. they dislike false-self behaviour, but also...

2. adolescents differ in the?

3. who is it most likely to occur in
- who is it least likely to occur w/

4. when may it be used

1. believe it is sometimes acceptable

2. degrees of and reasons for presenting false fronts

3. romantic situations
- close friends

4. please others; experiment w/ different personalities; if they devalue their true self (depression and hopelessness highest here)

1. five-factor model
- what are the 5 dimensions

2. what are the influences on personality
- what happens as people age

3. what becomes increasingly stable as we get older

1. theory that there are 5 basic dimensions to personality
- extraversion, neuroticism, & openness to experience

2. genetic and environmental influences
- environment becomes (somewhat) more important as people age

3. temperament and personality

1. is adolescence a time of tumultuous upheaval in personality

2. what happens to personality over adolescence

3. what is early temperament (toddler years) predictive of

1. No. there is no evidence to say it is

2. becomes increasingly stable

3. personality in adolescence

Erikson's Theoretical Framework
1. He viewed the person as moving through?

2. His identity vs. identity diffusion:

3. Not until adolescence does one have the mental or emotional capacity to?

1. 8 psychological crises throughout lifetime

2. the normative crisis characteristic of the 5th stage of psychosocial development, is predominant during adolescence

3. achieve a balanced, coherent sense of identity

Erikson's Theoretical Framework
1. developing an identity is what type of process

2. adolescent's identity results from?

1. social and mental process

2. mutual recognition btwn. the young person and society

1. The social context affects whether the search for self-definition will be a...?

2. what happens w/ the more alternatives that are available?

3. why is the likelihood of experiencing a prolonged and difficult identity crisis greater today than previously?

1. manageable challenge or full-blown crisis

2. the more difficult it is to establish a sense of identity

3. b/c of the rapid rate of social change

- the psychosocial moratorium

1. Erikson - this is necessary to due the?

2. might be a luxury of the?

- a period during which individuals are free from excessive obligations and responsibilities and can therefore experiment w/ different roles and personalities

1. complications of identity development in modern society

2. affluent

Problems in Identity Development
1. When do problems in identity development commonly result?

2. may also happen when the adolescent is in environment that...?

3. the 3 different problems Erikson focused on

1. when someone has not successfully resolved earlier crises

2. does NOT provide the necessary period of moratorium

3. Identity diffusion: Identity foreclosure; Negative identity

Problems in Identity Development
1. Foreclosure
- who makes the decisions

2. Diffusion
--> example

- Negative identity
--> to guarantee?

1. premature commitment to assigned identity
- parent/community for the child (shutting off other avenues of development)

2. Reluctance to deal w/ identity issues (can lead to depression, etc.)
--> being psychologically paralyzed by the amnt. of options

- compelling notice by outraging others (a way out of diffusion)
--> attention and concern

Identity diffusion
1. excessive ______; and difficulty _____

2. difficulties forming...?
- resulting in concerns over?

1. self-consciousness; making decisions

2. intimate relationships
- sexuality

Identity Foreclosure
1. Skipping exploration and experimentation leads to?

2. roles adopted here often revolve around

3. what does it interfere w/ in individuals

1. sense of identity

2. goals set by parents or other authority figures

3. their discovery of full range of potential

Negative Identity
1. usually, this is an attempt to forge sense of self-definition when..._

2. Most would rather be somebody "bad" than?

1. it is difficult to establish an acceptable identity

2. nobody at all

Erikson and the Identity Crisis
1. Identity explorations

2. Identity commitment

3. what does the combo of these 2 dimensions create?

1. examining alternatives in a particular area of activity, such as occupation or beliefs and values

2. choosing a belief or course of action and making a personal investment in it

3. the 4 categories of identity status (diffusion, foreclosure, achievement, moratorium)

1. Ethnicity

2. Ethnocultural identity

3. what age to kids know what their ethnicity is

4 what happens w/ ethnicity during adolescence

1. a person's cultural background and the customs, values, and attitudes that go w/ it

2. an understanding of oneself in terms of one's ethnic and cultural background

3. by elementary

4. they start to understand how their ethnocultural group is different from other groups, which contributes to their developing ethnocultural identity

- what is the process of ethnic identity development similar to

1. what is the unquestioning view of oneself is displaced or upset by?

2. When does the period of exploration occur?

3. what is development of ethnic identity strongly influenced by

- the process of identity development in general

1. a crisis (encounter of bias, prejudice, or discrimination)

2. after crisis

3. context (school, peer group, contact w/ others)

1. Ethnocultural socialization

2. what 3 themes does ethnocultural socialization generally focus on
- strong sense of ethnic identity associated w/?

1. the process through which individuals develop an understanding of their ethnic or racial background

2. understanding & valuing one's self; Dealing w/ racism; Succeeding in mainstream society
- higher self-esteem, stronger self-efficacy, better mental health

1. who is development of a coherent sense of identity far more complicated for

2. social context of minority adolescents often includes:

3. Negative psychological effects of discrimination

4. one pathway linking perceived discrimination to antisocial behaviour is through the impact of?

1. adolescents who are members of an ethnocultural minority group

2. racial stereotypes; discrimination; mixed messages abt. identifying w/ majority culture

3. conduct problems; depression; poor sleep; slower school achievement

4. discrimination on depression and alienation, which leads adolescents to affiliate w/ antisocial peers

Why might Indigenous youth in Canada have an especially challenging time w/ identity development?

- Compared to youth of other identities, Indigenous youth experience higher rates of?

b/c of governmental policies related to cultural suppression and forced assimilation
--> tend to have lower ethnic identity compared to other groups

- developmental problems (mental and physical health, social)

Identity Development among Indigenous Canadian Youth (what researchers found)
1. what was identity development NOT related to?
- What could it be related to

1. adolescent age, or biological sex
- cross-sectional design or restricted age range

Identity Development among Indigenous Canadian Youth (what researchers found)

1. having a strong sense of Indigenous identity was associated w/ greater?

2. having a strong sense of white identity was:

1. affiliation and belonging to their community; achievement in schools
--> important for learning and well-being

2. associated w/ lower achievement in schools; associated w/ lower Indigenous identity; Not related to affiliation/belonging in their community

1. why are intimate relationships particularly important in adolescence
- what is important for heterosexual teens

2. the development of intimacy is linked to?

3. what do changes in sexual impulses provoke

1. the first truly intimate relationships are characterized by openness, honesty, self-disclosure, and trust emerges
- other-sex peers

2. normative biological, cognitive, and social changes of adolescence

3. interest in sex, leading to development of romantic relationships

Cognitive change & Development of Intimacy
1. advances in thinking permit relationships w/?

2. the maturation of connections among brains regions foes hand in hand w/?
- what is an example of the negatives that can come w/ this?
- b/c of this, what can teens to more than kids

1. greater empathy, self-disclosure, and sensitivity

2. improvements in interpersonal competence
- increased loneliness
- think abt. the nuances/complications of relationships

1. behavioural independence provides more opportunity for?

2. as "near adults" adolescents become?

3. what is the gradual transformation of relationships that comes w/ age

1. intimate discussion

2. confidants, source of support for parents and other adults

3. from friendly, activity-oriented friendships (of childhood) to self-conscious, analytical, and intimate relationships (of adulthood)

Sullivan's Theory of Interpersonal Development
1. The theory

2. how does it compare to other theorists

3. what does he emphasize

4. what happens as children develop different needs

1. a person's character is shaped through interpersonal contacts w/ others (occurs in phases as one ages)

2. it is a less biological view

3. social aspects of growth

4. they either lead to feelings of security (when needs are satisfied) or feelings of anxiety (needs are frustrated/unsatisfied

Sullivan's Theory of Interpersonal Development
1. what did he chart

2. what is the glue that holds one's sense of self together

3. psychosocial development is?

4. what does a solid foundation of security in past relationships aid in?

1. stages of interpersonal needs

2. security derived from having satisfying relationships

3. cumulative

4. successful interpersonal transitions

Sullivan's view - interpersonal development during adolescence
1. what does the need for intimacy precede

2. where does the capacity for intimacy first develop

3. what is quality of same-sex friendships predictive of

1. the development of romantic or sexual relationships

2. in same-sex relationships

3. the quality of later romantic relationships (reverse NOT true)

Sullivan's view - interpersonal development during adolescence
1. the challenge is to transition btwn.

2. platonic relationships

1. nonsexual, intimate same-sex friendships to sexual, intimate other-sex friendships of late adolescence

2. nonsexual relationships w/individuals who might otherwise be romantic partners

1. Erikson's proposed crisis:
- what is needed to develop intimacy

2. Sullivan

3. what is the relationship btwn. the 2 theories

1. intimacy vs. isolation
- an established identity

2. need to have intimacy in order to develop an identity

3. they likely both occur at once

Attachment Theory
1. Attachment

2. Secure Attachment

3. Anxious-avoidant Attachment

1. the strong affectional bond that develops btwn. an infant and caregiver

2. a healthy attachment btwn. infant and caregiver, characterized by trust (most healthy style)

3. an insecure attachment btwn. infant and caregiver, characterized by indifference on the part of the infant toward the caregiver
(not much trust)

Attachment Theory
1. Anxious-resistant Attachment

2. Disorganized Attachment

1. an insecure attachment btwn. infant and caregiver, characterized by distress at separation and anger at reunion

2. a relationship btwn. infant and caregiver characterized by the absence of normal attachment behaviour (no trust; things are unpredictable; no strong emotional bond)

Attachment Theory
1. what other theory is it kind of similar to

2. how must intimacy during adolescence be examined

3. which style can cause increase risk for psychological problems

1. Sullivan's

2. in relationship to the individual's history of close relationships, particularly those w/ their primary caregiver during intimacy

3. disorganized attachment

Attachment Theory
1. some argue that the initial attachment relationships forms the basis for?

2. internal working model:

1. the model of interpersonal relationships employed throughout life

2. the implicit expectations of interpersonal relationships that an individual employs throughout life, believed to be shaped by early attachment experiences

Attachment Theory
1. rejection sensitivity:

2. what are high rejection sensitivity and emotional insecurity are linked to

1. heightened vulnerability to being rejected by others

2. depression and anxiety (which lad to further increases in rejection sensitivity)

Attachment Theory
- is it possible for interpersonal development to be cumulative w/out the root cause being the individual's internal working model

- yes it is

Changes in the Nature of Friendship
1. what do both children and adolescents mention

2. what do adolescents also mention

3. how does the definition of friendship vary from childhood to adolescence

4. what theories is this consistent w/?

1. sharing, helping, common activities

2. self-disclosure, common interests, similar attitudes and values, and loyalty

3. childhood mostly by companionship; in adolescence intimacy becomes involved

4. Sullivan's theory and other cognitive changes of adolescence that allow individuals to think abt. abstract concepts

Changes in the Nature of Friendship - Jealousy (middle adolescence)
1. what happens to concerns abt. intimate self-disclosure

2. what do older adolescents typically have conflicts over

3. what do younger adolescents typically have conflicts over

1. they may be temporarily overshadowed as concerns abt. loyalty and anxieties over rejection become more pronounced

2. private matters

3. public disrespect

Changes in the Nature of Friendship - Jealousy (middle adolescence)
1. what do girls in particular show a pronounced increase during early adolescence?

2. what might this pattern of change be related to?

1. jealousy over their friends' friends

2. the transition into other-sex relationships

Conflict
1. how are close friendships different from casual friendships

2. which is more emotional w/ lots of anger and hurt feelings

3. which is more likely to provoke efforts to restore the relationship

1. in the types of conflicts and how they are resolved

2. close friends

3. close friends

Changes in the Display of Intimacy
1. what do adolescents gain knowledge abt.

2. what is the pattern of reports on friendship quality

3. what are high levels of online social networking linked to

4. what can come from having more friends

1. the more intimate aspects of their friends' lives

2. they steadily increase

3. less social isolation

4. it can make us feel better and increase confidence in making new friends

compared to children, what do traits do adolescents have more of

helpful and generous; responsive to close friends; empathic and socially understanding; focused on providing support

Changes in the Display of Intimacy (conflict resolution)
1. compared to children adolescents are more likely to?

2. which peers is negotiation more common btwn.

3. how does adolescents resolution w/ parents compare to children's' resolution w/ parents

1. end conflicts w/ negotiation (rather than having a winner & loser)

2. btwn. romantic partners, more than friends, close friends, and acquaintances

3. it is similar

Positive impacts of social media on Development of Intimacy
1. May help adolescents develop?
2. what does it enhance?
3. how does it serve an important purpose in helping teens

1. social competence
2. quality of adolescent friendships
3. it validates the importance of their friendships

Positive impacts of social media on Development of Intimacy
1. what does it provide adolescents w/?

2. how do negative interactions compare to those in real life

3. are overall effects more positive or negative

1. new ways for them to enjoy friends' companionship

2. they are often the same as in real life

3. positive

Sex Differences
1. Who express greater interest in close friendships, talk more frequently about intimate conversations w/ friends, express greater concern about friends' faithfulness and greater anxiety over rejection, and place greater emphasis on emotional closeness in their evaluation of romantic partners.

2. Who is more likely to make distinctions in treatment of intimate and nonintimate friends and to fight abt. relationships.

1. Girls

2. girls

Sex Differences
1. Whose conflicts are briefer, typically over issues of power and control, more likely to escalate into physical aggression, and usually resolved w/out explicit effort

2. Whose conflicts are longer, typically about some form of betrayal, and only resolved with an apology

3. How is girls' mental health when things are going well vs. bad w/ friends

1. Boys'

2. Girls'

3. it is more positively affected (than boys) when things are going well; but they suffer more (than boys) when things are going poorly

Sex Differences (Co-rumination)
1. Co-rumination def:

2. who is more likely to partake in it

3. how does it differ in boys and girls

1. excessive talking w/ another abt. problems

2. girls

3. In boys, it can increase friendships and doesn't increase depression or anxiety as much/as often as in girls

Sex Differences in Intimacy
1. how is it similar
2. who is intimacy a more conscious concern fore
3. Theorists suggest differences are a result of
4. social pressures on males and females during adolescence are quite different, which might lead to?
5. who reports more self-disclosure in friendships

1. they have equivalent degrees of intimate knowledge abt. their best friends

2. girls (but not absent from boys)

3. different patterns of socialization

4. differences in expressions of intimacy

5. Girls

1. Adolescence is a time of changes in the _____ of intimate behaviour

2. What does intimacy w/ peers replace
3. what does intimacy w/ other-sex peers replace

4. What is the main indication of research here

1. targets

2. intimacy w/ parents
3. intimacy w/ same-sex friends

4. new targets are added to old ones, instead of replacing them

1. How do relationships w/ romantic partners and close friends compare to those w/ parents

2. what happens to the relationship w/ parents as adolescents age

3. What should be distinguished btwn.?
- what should not be distinguished btwn.?

4. Reaffiliation motive:

1. they are less stressful than w/ parents

2. the slight drop in intimacy that occurs during adolescence reverse as they become young adults

3. the normal and adaptive motivation that most of us have, which prompts us to reconnect w/ others when we feel lonely

1. The quality of relationship w/ peers and w/ parents is?

2. What happens to the likelihood of turning to a peer during a time of trouble during adolescence?
- What happens to the likelihood of turning to a parent during a time of trouble during adolescence?

1. closely linked

2. It increases
- it remains constant

1. who do adolescents feel freer to express anger to during arguments

2. are there ethnicity differences in the expression in intimacy btwn. adolescents and parents?

3. what are the relationship differences btwn. adolescents relationships w/ their mothers vs fathers
- what might this be due to

1. freer w/ family members

2. only modestly

3. there is both more conflict and closeness w/ mothers
- conflict, b/c (if resolved) conflict can drive intimacy

1. Social support:

2. what is a lack of support from parents or friends in school associated w/?

3. Is support from only one source enough

1. the extent to which an individual receives emotional or instrumental assistance from his or her social network

2. low self-worth and poorer social judgement

3. no. support from one, does NOT make up for the lack of support from the other
-> we need support from multiple different sources to thrive in our relationships

1. what is the intimacy in sibling relationships complicated by

2. how is the sibling relationship affected by adolescence

3. what happens to intimacy w/ grandparents during adolescence

4. how does the development of relationships w/ nonfamilial adults play into adolescence

1. a mix of affection and rivalry

2. conflict, warmth, and closeness w/ siblings decline

3. it declines (less so if adolescent is living w/ single/divorced mother)

4. it is a normative part of adolescence

Intimacy Development & Dating
1. From Sullivan's theory: developmental progression in...

2. from Attachment theory: individuals differ in the quality of their relationships, which reflects...

3. from ecological perspectives of development: relationships need to be viewed w/in the...

1. individual's capacity for intimacy

2. the relationship btwn. adolescents (or Kids) & parents

3. larger (broader) context that they occur in

1. what is the quality of adolescents' friendships is predictive of?

2. what are the different roles in development that relationships play in males and females

3. girls' early sexual relationships are more likely (than boys) to involve...

1. the quality of subsequent romantic relationship (reverse is not true)

2. (girls) early romantic relationships provide context for the further expression of intimacy;
(boys) early romantic relationships provide context for further development of intimacy

3. love, intimacy, & emotional involvement