Quiz 1 (Chapters 1-4) Lifespan Development

ACA Code of Ethics

A.1.c.: Counselors and their clients work jointly in devising counseling plans that offer reasonable promise of success and are consistent with the abilities, temperament, developmental level, and circumstances of clients. Counselors and clients regularly review and revise counseling plans to assess their continued viability and effectiveness, respecting clients’ freedom of choice.

Essential to Counseling Practice

Counselors engage in practices that foster ongoing wellness and development and act as advocates against barriers that limit human development. Such a professional calling or mission is both noble and valuable. However, this mission is clearly impossible to fulfill without the following:

a. professional knowledge of the nature of human development across the lifespan,

b. the understanding of both normative and exceptional challenges that can be and are experienced, and

c. the use of research and theory on human development to guide professional practice decisions.

Ancestors

a person from whom one descended. Individuals have a genetic relationship if one is the ancestor of the other, or if they share a common ancestorship.

Artificial intelligence (AI)

computer systems that can perform complex tasks normally done by human reasoning, decision-making, and creating.

Behaviorism Theory

• Emphasis on impact of environment, experience, and learning.

• Human behavior and learning result from the effects of external factors of reinforcers and punishers.

• Skinner’s operant conditioning model: behavior followed by a rewarding consequence more likely to recur and endure than one followed by a punishing consequence.

Biogenetic law

Theorizes that the stages an animal embryo undergoes during development are a chronological replay of that species’ past evolutionary forms.

Understanding Human Development Can Empower You

Understanding human development empowers you to do the following:

• address end-of-life concerns

• develop and maintain supportive relationships

• make informed choices about your lifestyle habits and medical care that support your health

• plan for your needs as you age to stay safe and independent

• improve your quality of life.

Cardiovascular system

the heart pumps blood to circulate through a network of vessels throughout the body to provide individual cells with oxygen and nutrients and helps dispose of metabolic waste.

• The system includes organs and tissues involved in circulating blood and lymph through the body.

Cognitive development

a field of study in neuroscience and psychology, focusing on a child’s development in terms of information processing, conceptual resources, perceptual skill, language learning, and other aspects of brain development and cognitive psychology, as compared to an adult’s point of view.

Conception

the process of becoming pregnant, involving fertilization, implantation, or both.

Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP)

an independent agency recognized by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation to accredit master’s degree programs in addiction counseling; career counseling; clinical mental health counseling; marriage, couple, and family counseling; school counseling; student affairs; and college counseling.

Culture

refers to a large and diverse set of intangible aspects of social life. _____ consists of the values, beliefs, systems of language, communication, and practices that people share and that can be used to define them as a collective group. ____ also includes the material objects and symbolic art that are common to that group or society.

CACREP 2024 Human Growth and Development Standards

Lifespan Development

1. theories of individual and family development across the lifespan

2. theories of cultural identity development

3. theories of learning

4. theories of personality and psychological development

5. theories and neurobiological etiology of addictions

6. structures for affective relationships, bonds, couples, marriages, and families

7. models of resilience, optimal development, and wellness in individuals and families across the lifespan

8. models of psychosocial adjustment and adaptation to illness and disability

9. the role of sexual development and sexuality related to overall wellness

10. biological, neurological, and physiological factors that affect lifespan development, functioning, behavior, resilience, and overall wellness

11. systemic, cultural, and environmental factors that affect lifespan development, functioning, behavior, resilience, and overall wellness

12. the influence of mental and physical health conditions on coping, resilience, and overall wellness for individuals and families across the lifespan

13. effects of crises, disasters, stress, grief, and trauma across the lifespan

Development

orderly and sequential changes that occur over time as an organism moves from conception to death.

Discipline

training expected to produce a specific characteristic or pattern of behavior, especially training that produces moral or mental improvement.

Excessive distress

an unpleasant feeling or emotion that may cause problems when exceeding that which is normal or sufficient.

Genetic traits and composition

In genetics, a trait refers to any genetically determined characteristic. In technical terms, a genetic trait is amenable to segregation analysis rather than quantitative analysis. Traits include physical attributes of an organism (e.g., hair color, leaf shape, size, etc.) and behavioral characteristics.

• Genetic composition refers to the pattern of DNA unique to each individual that can be analyzed in a sample of blood, saliva, or tissue.

Human development

Includes human growth but also takes into consideration the psychological aspects of development.

Human growth

The physical aspects of development.

Intervention

The act or fact of interfering with modifying any measure whose purpose is to improve health or alter the course of the disease.

Irrational thinking

Cognition, thinking, talking, or acting without inclusion of prudence, specifically described as an action or opinion given through inadequate reasoning, emotional distress, or cognitive deficiency.

Lifespan

the duration of the existence of an individual; the average length of time that any particular organism can be expected to live in a particular environment or under specified circumstances.

Maturation

Development of personal and behavioral characteristics through growth processes.

Moral development

A human development process through which children foster proper attitudes and behaviors toward other people in society, grounded in social and cultural norms, rules, and laws.

Pathophysiology

A convergence of pathology and physiology. Pathology in medical terms describes conditions observed during a disease state, and physiology is a biological discipline that describes processes or mechanisms operating within an organism.

Physical development

The progressive changes in size, shape, and function during the life of an organism.

Progressivism

Based on the idea of progress, which asserts that advances in science, technology, economic development, and social organization can improve the human condition.

Quality of life

A measurement used to evaluate the general well-being of individuals and societies.

Scientific inquiry

Refers to the diverse ways in which scientists study the natural world and propose logical explanations based on the evidence derived from their work. It is for people who want to be challenged and use creative and critical thinking to answer questions related to science.

World Health Organization (WHO)

An interagency of the United Nations, established in 1948 to promote health and control communicable diseases.

Counseling theory

theories of human and personality development, including how genetic, psychosociological, neurobiological, and cognitive factors contribute to behavior and learning development.

Family Counseling

theories of family and individuals as related to the transition across the lifespan.

Abnormal Psychology

theories of human behavior, both normal and abnormal behavior, to be affected in the development stages of happiness, sadness, loss, crises, health, disability, and situational and environmental factors that may contribute to growth and development stages.

Addiction

theories of addictions and addictive behaviors, including strategies for prevention, intervention, and treatment.

Counseling Intervention and Prevention

theories for the study of facilitating optimal development, enhancing quality of life, and maintaining wellness over the lifespan.

Crises Intervention

theories of individuals, families, and communities coping with disasters and post-traumatic stress and how resilience contributes to the transition of healing and recovery.

Assessment

theories of psychosocial, cultural, and economic contributions to the holistic assessment of human growth and development.

Theories of Counseling and Psychotherapy

theories that guide proper diagnoses and appropriate counseling treatment to enhance and optimize the counseling outcome, all placed within the context of human condition and normative challenges.

Conception/prenatal

Estimated age range: 0

Period involving rapid and extensive growth from a single cell to a human with neurological capabilities.

Infancy

Estimated Age Range: Birth to 12 months

While highly dependent, the development of language, symbolic thought, social skills, and modeling takes place.

Toddler

Estimated Age Range: 1 to 3 years (overlap)

Increasing mobility and independence; “the terrible twos”

Early school age

Estimated age range: 4 to 5 years

Increasing self-sufficiency, peer interest and interaction, and school-readiness skills.

Middle childhood

Estimated age range: 6 to 12 years

Achievement drive becomes evident; the fundamental skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic are mastered

Early adolescence

Estimated age range: 13 to 17 years

Rapid physical changes and the development of sexual characteristics; increased peer interaction and influence; cognitively moving into formal, abstract reasoning

Late adolescence

Estimated age range: 18 to 24 years

The pursuit of independence (socially, psychologically, and financially) and the desire to identify vocational direction and personal identity

Early emerging adulthood

Estimated age range: 25 to 35 years

Focus on establishing personal and economic independence, career development, and, for many, selecting a mate, possibly starting a family, and rearing children

Middle adulthood

Estimated age range: 36 to 60 years

While maintaining a satisfying career, interest turns toward social responsibility and assisting the next generation.

Late adulthood

Estimated age range: 61 to 75 years

Adjusting to post-work identity and retirement; adjusting to challenges of changing health

Oldest-old elderhood

Estimated age range: 76 years and older

Reflection and life review: preparing for the end of life

Oral Stage

Age: Birth to 1 year

An infant’s primary interaction with the world is through the mouth. The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking. If this pleasure is unmet, the child may develop an oral fixation later in life, examples of which include thumb-sucking, smoking, fingernail biting, and overeating.

Anal stage

Age: 1 to 3 years

With the development of new cells and the control provided by those cells (sphincters), the focus shifts from oral stimulation to controlling bladder and bowel movements. Toilet training is a primary issue for children and parents. Too much pressure can result in an excessive need for order or cleanliness later in life, while too little pressure from parents can lead to messy or destructive behavior later in life.

Phallic stage

Age: 3 to 6 years

At this point in development, the focus of the id’s instinctual energies shifts to the genitals. It is during this period that children develop an attraction to the opposite-sex parent. It is also at this period that children adopt the values and characteristics of the same-sex parent and form the superego.

Latent stage

Age: 6 to 11 years

During this stage, children develop social skills, values, and relationships with peers and adults outside the family.

Genital stage

Age: 11 to 18 years

During this stage, people develop a strong interest in the opposite sex, and the onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. If development has been successful to this point, the individual will continue to develop into a well-balanced person.

Trust v. Mistrust

Infant (0 to 1 ½ years)

The infant will develop a healthy balance between trust and mistrust if cared for and responded to consistently. Abuse or neglect will foster mistrust. Positive outcomes consist of the development of hope and drive, while adverse outcomes could contribute to withdrawal.

Autonomy v. Shame & Doubt

Age: Toddler (1 to 3 years)

Autonomy means self-reliance or independence of thought and confidence to act for oneself. Toilet training is a significant part of this stage. Positive outcomes consist f willpower and self-control, while negative outcomes could contribute to compulsive behaviors.

Initiative v. Guilt

Age: Preschool (4 to 6 years)

Initiative means aptitude and self-confidence in performing actions, even when understanding risks and failure. Guilt results from abandonment or believing an action will draw disapproval. Positive outcomes foster purpose and direction, while negative outcomes encourage inhibition.

Industry v. Inferiority

Age: School age (7 to 12 years)

Industry means having a meaningful activity and the competence to perform a skill. Inferiority means feeling incapable of experiencing failure or being unable to discover one’s strengths. This stage is crucial in the school years. Positive outcomes foster competence, while negative outcomes encourage inertia.

Identity v. Role Confusion

Age: Adolescent (12 to 18 years)

Identity means understanding oneself and how one fits into the surrounding world, while role confusion focuses on the inability to understand oneself or ones personal identity. Positive outcomes foster fidelity and devotion, while negative outcomes encourage repudiation behavior.

Intimacy v. Isolation

Age: Young adult (19 to 40 years)

Intimacy means developing relationships with friends, family, and partners. Isolation involves feelings of being excluded from relationships or partnerships. These encompass sexual maturity, reciprocal love, support, and emotional connection. Positive outcomes foster love and affiliation, while negative outcomes encourage exclusivity.

Generativity v. Stagnation

Age: Adulthood (41 to 65 years)

Generativity means unconditional care for one’s offspring or the future generations to come, while stagnation refers to self-absorption/concentration. Positive outcomes foster care and giving, while adverse outcomes encourage objectivity.

Integrity v. Despair

Age: Mature adult (> 65 years)

Integrity means an understanding of self and satisfaction with life, while despair contributes to feelings of waste time, opportunity, and chances. Positive outcomes foster wisdom, while adverse outcomes encourage despair.

4 Mediational Processes Proposed by Social Learning Theory

1. Attention

2. Retention

3. Reproduction

4. Motivation

Attention

This is the extent to which we are exposed to/notice the behavior. We observe many behaviors daily, but many of them do not seize our attention, and we will not imitate them.

Retention

The behavior may be noticed, but it is not always remembered, which obviously prevents imitation and later repetition by the observer.

Reproduction

This is the ability to perform the behavior that the model has just demonstrated. We observe other people’s behaviors daily, but we are limited by our cognitive and/or physical ability to imitate or repeat these behaviors; even if we wish to reproduce these behaviors, we cannot.

Motivation

The observer will consider the drive to perform the behavior and the subsequent rewards and punishments resulting from a behavior’s imitation. The observer will be more likely to imitate the behavior if the perceived reward outweighs the perceived negative consequence.

Sensorimotor stage

Approximate Age: Birth to 18 to 24 months

Infants adapt and organize experiences by way of sensory and motor actions. Initially, simple reflexes (for example, sucking) help them know their world. Later, within this stage, infants differentiate themselves from the external world, and objects take on their existence. This is the time when object permanence occurs, with the infant able to symbolize the object and realize that objects exist even if they are out of the infant’s sensory experience.

Preoperational stage

Approximate age: 2 to 7 years

While the child at this stage lacks logical operations, the child is no longer tied to sensorimotor input but is tied to and operates via representational and conceptual frameworks. The child can employ symbols to recreate or present experiences. In this stage, the child believes that everyone sees the world the same way that the child does. This is called egocentrism. Conservation, another achievement of this stage, is the ability to understand that quantity does not change if the shape changes.

Concrete operational stage

Approximate age: 7 to 11 years

In this stage, the child can employ logic, however, only to concrete problems and objects.

Formal operational stage

Approximate age: > 11 years

At this point, children’s abstract thinking leads to reasoning with more complex symbols. They can think logically about abstract propositions and test hypotheses systematically. They become concerned with the hypothetical, the future, and ideological problems.

Microsystem

The individual’s immediate surroundings and consists of interactions in their immediate surroundings. It is the setting in which a person lives; family, peer groups, neighborhood, and school life are all included in the microsystem.

The most direct interactions with social agents take place in the microsystem, with parents, peers, and teachers, for example. The individual is not merely a passive recipient of experiences in these settings but someone who helps to construct them.

Mesosystem

This system connects with the structure of the microsystem. The relationship between school life, the neighborhood, and the family can be seen. The child’s environment links the child with their immediate surroundings. Some common examples are the connections between family experiences and school experiences, school experiences and church experiences, and family experiences and peer experiences.

A result of mesosystem interactions could be that children whose parents have rejected them may have difficulty developing positive relationships with their friends or peers.

Exosystem

The outer shell surrounding both the mesosystem and the microsystem. The inner level of the exosystem is affected by the support of the macrosystem. Brofenbrenner describes this system as being made up of social settings that do not contain the developing person but affect experiences in their immediate settings.

This system includes other people and places that the child may not interact with often but still significantly affect the child, such as parents’ workplaces, extended family members, neighborhoods, and so on. For example, a wife or child’s experience at home may be influenced by the husband’s experiences at work. The father might receive a promotion that requires more travel, which might increase conflict with the wife and affect patterns of interaction with the child.

Macrosystem

This system influences the individual directly, but the individual has less influence in determining settings. The macrosystem includes aspects of culture and the relative freedoms permitted by the national government, cultural values, the economy, wars, and so on. It also describes the culture in which individuals live, including socioeconomic status, poverty, and ethnicity.

Chronosystem

This system refers to patterning environmental events and transitions over an individual’s life and sociohistorical circumstances. For example, divorce is an individual transition. Researchers have found that the adverse effects of divorce on children often peak in the first year after the divorce. Family interaction is less chaotic and more stable 2 years after the divorce. An example of sociohistorical circumstances would be the increasing opportunities in recent decades for women to pursue careers.

Developmental theory

A group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that interpret and illuminate the thousands of observations that have been made about human growth. A developmental theory provides a framework for explaining the patterns and problems of development.

Qualitative research methods

A method of inquiry employed in many different academic disciplines, traditionally in the social sciences. ____ researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior, and they employ focus groups, in-depth interviews, content analysis, ethnography, evaluation and semiotics, open-ended survey responses, literature reviews, audio recordings, pictures, and webpages. The ___ method investigates the why and how of decision-making, not just what, where, and when. Hence, smaller but focused samples are more often needed than large samples to gain an understanding of underlying reasons and motivations.

Quantitative research methods

Refers to the systematic empirical investigation of social phenomena via statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques. The objective of ____ research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories, and/or hypotheses about phenomena and to quantify data and generalize results from a sample to the population of interest.

Hawthorne effect

A psychological phenomenon in which participants alter their behavior to produce improvement as a result of being part of an experiment or study due to increased attention from the observers.

Jean Piaget

A Swiss developmental psychologist and philosopher who studied children and their hidden mind and developed a comprehensive theory about the nature and development of human intelligence.

Sigmund Freud

Considered the father of psychoanalysis. He began to analyze dreams to understand aspects of the personality as they relate to pathology.

Strengths of Survey Research

1. Relatively inexpensive.

2. Helpful in describing the characteristics of a large population.

3. Can be administered from remote locations using a website, mail, email, or telephone.

4. Collecting large samples is feasible in a survey, making the results statistically significant even when analyzing multiple variables.

5. Multiple questions can be asked about a specific topic, giving considerable flexibility to the analysis.

6. At the creation phase, there is flexibility in deciding how the questions will be administered: face-to-face interviews, by telephone, as a group-administered written or oral survey, or by electronic means.

7. Standardized questions make measurement more precise by enforcing uniform definitions upon the participants.

8. The between-group study can be standardized to ensure that similar data can be collected from groups and then interpreted comparatively.

9. High reliability is not difficult to obtain by presenting all aspects with a standardized stimulus.

10. This medium of research significantly eliminates observer subjectivity.

Weaknesses of Survey Research

1. A methodology relying on standardization forces the researcher to develop questions general enough to be minimally appropriate for all respondents, possibly compromising what is most appropriate to many respondents.

2. The initial study design, including the method and the tool, must remain unchanged throughout the data collection, and this makes the design inflexible.

3. To get a good-sized sample, the researcher must ensure that many of the selected samples will respond to the survey.

4. At the conclusion of the survey, participants may find it challenging to recall information or to tell the truth about a controversial question.

5. Surveys are a widely used research method for gathering data from samples ranging from health concerns and political viewpoints to attitudes and opinions. Surveys tend to be weak on validity (except face validity) and strong on reliability. Also, survey answers are influenced by the wording and sequence of the questions. The respondents’ selective memory may also contribute to how they answer the questions.

6. The artificiality of the survey format has compromised its validity, and participants are more inclined to respond to questions they perceive to be relevant and meaningful rather than those questions they cannot comprehend. Survey data must be reliable to be useful since survey research presents all subjects with a standardized stimulus and potentially eliminates the unreliability issue in the data collection process.

Schema (Piaget)

cognitive structures by which a person organizes their experiences and environment.

Zone of Proximal Development

range of tasks a person can’t complete independently but can accomplish with support.

Proximal

refers to skills the learner is “close” to mastering.