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Initiative v Guilt
-Children use perceptual, motor, cognitive, and language skills to make things happen
-Excitedly move out into the wider social world on their own initiative
-Governor of the initiative is self-awareness
-Initiative and enthusiasm may bring guilt, which lowers self-esteem
-Increased awareness reflects young children's expanding psychological complexity
Self-understanding and perception of the self
Children often provide self-descriptions that involve bodily attributes, material possessions, and physical activities. Their self-descriptions tend to be unrealistically positive and tend to confuse ability and effort
Understanding others
Children start perceiving others in terms of psychological traits. Also gain an understanding that people don't always give accurate reports of their beliefs. They learn extensively through observing others' behavior
Emotional Development
Growing awareness of self is linked to feeling an expanding range of emotions. Also allows them to try to make sense of other people's emotional reactions and to control their own
Self-conscious emotions
Pride, shame, embarrassment, and guilt. Pride and guilt are more common
Emotion coaching
-Parents monitor their children's emotions.
-View negative emotions as opportunities for teaching.
-Assist them in labeling emotions.
-Coach them on how to deal effectively with emotions
Emotion dismissing
Parents view their role as to deny, ignore, or change negative emotions. Linked to lower emotional competence
Moral Development
Involves thoughts, feelings, and behavior regarding rules and social standards about what people should do in their interactions with other people
Moral Feelings
Feelings of anxiety and guilt are central to the account of moral development provided by Freud's psychoanalytic theory.
Structures of Personality according to Freud
Id, Ego, Superego. Children form the superego, the moral element of personality, in part to reduce anxiety and avoid punishment. Freud's ideas are not backed by research, emotions and guilt can motivate behavior
Gender
the characteristics related to femininity and masculinity based on social and cultural norms
Gender Identity
a person's inner sense of being a girl, boy, another gender, or no gender. For most, it develops early in childhood and remains stable over time. For others, it may change throughout the life course
Gender Roles
a cultural set of expectations that prescribes how people should think, act, and feel based on social and cultural norms about gender
How mothers influence gender development
Mothers' socialization strategies encourage daughters to be obedient and responsible; and restrict daughters' autonomy
How fathers influence gender development
Fathers' socialization strategies give more attention to sons and put more effort to promote sons' intellectual development
As compared to nonparents, parents...
-Are typically more satisfied with their lives
-Feel relatively better daily
-Have more positive feelings toward children and daily activities
Types of parenting styles
Authoritarian
Authoritative
Neglectful
Indulgent
Who identified the types of parenting styles?
Diana Baumrind's in the 1960's
Authoritarian parenting
-Restrictive and disciplinary
-Child is to follow directions and respect parents' work and effort
-Allows little verbal exchange
-Associated with children's social incompetence and a higher level of aggression
Authoritative parenting
-Encourages children to be independent but still places limits and controls on their actions
-Extensive verbal give-and-take is allowed
-Associated with children's social competence and prosocial behaviors
Neglectful/Uninvolved parenting
-The parent in uninvolved in the child's life
-Associated with social incompetence in children, along with poor self-control, low self-esteem, immaturity, and alienation
-In adolescence, may contribute to truancy and delinquency
Indulgent/Permissive parenting
-Parents are highly involved with their children but place a few demands or control on them
-Children never learn to control on their own behavior and always expect to get their way
-Children rarely learn to respect for others and have difficulty controlling their behavior
-They may be domineering, egocentric, and non-compliant, and they have difficulties in peer relations
Punishment
Refers to the practice of imposing a penalty on someone in response to something undesirable
Some reasons for avoiding harsh/physical punishments are...
-Present an out-of-control model of behavior... loss of emotional and physical control can occur
-Can instill fear, rage, or avoidance... slippery slope into abusive patterns within the parent-child relationship
-Focus on what not to do, rather than what to do... redirection to desirable behaviors are more useful in behavior modification
-Can be abusive and lead children toward abusive behaviors themselves
Types of Child Maltreatment
Physical abuse
Child neglect
Sexual abuse
Emotional abuse (psychological/verbal abuse/mental injury)
Causes of abuse
Parenting stress; marital problems; substance abuse; social isolation; and socioeconomic difficulties. The interactions among all family members need to be considered
Developmental consequences of abuse
poor emotion regulation, attachment problems, poor peer relations, difficulty in adapting to school, and depression
Physical abuse has been linked to
diminished cognitive development and school engagement
Abuse or neglect in childhood increases risk of...
Adolescent engagement in violent romantic relationships, delinquency, sexual risk taking, and substance abuse
Physical or sexual abuse has also been linked to...
an increase in 13 to 18 year olds's suicide ideation, plans, and attempts
Individuals who were maltreated as children are more likely to experience
Physical ailments
Mental problems
Sexual problems
Treatment to reduce child maltreatment
-Home visitation that emphasizes improved parenting, coping with stress, and increased support for the mother
-Parent-infant psychotherapy that focuses on improving maternal-infant attachment
-Social support and coping skills
Children of working mothers
Tend to engage in less gender stereotyping
What percentage of children born to married parents in the US will experience their parents' divorce
40%
Most children in divorced families experience more...
emotional discord from the marital conflict before the divorce, not from the divorce itself
When should parents divorce?
If family relationships are eroding the well-being of children
When should parents stay together?
If the diminished resources and increased risks of divorce are accompanied by inept parenting and sustained conflict
Co-parenting
Refers to the support that parents provide one another in raising a child
Conditions that place children at risk for problems include
-Poor coordination between parents
-Undermining of the other parent
-Lack of cooperation and warmth
-Disconnection by one parent
Co-parenting is more beneficial than either maternal or paternal parenting in helping children to develop...
self-control
According to Freud and Erikson, playing helps children master...
anxieties and conflicts
Play is also an important context for:
-Cognitive Development
-Exploratory behavior
-The development of language and communication skills
Sensorimotor Play
when infants derive pleasure from exercising their existing sensorimotor schemes
Practice Play
involves the repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned or when mastery is required
Pretense/Symbolic Play
transforms the physical environment into symbols
Social Play
involves interaction with peers
Constructive Play
combines sensorimotor/practice play with symbolic representation
Games
activities that are engaged in for pleasure and that have rules
Too much screen time can have a negative influence such as
-Making children passive learners
-Distracting from homework
-Teaching stereotypes, violent models of aggression, and unrealistic views of the world
-Less time spent in play and with peers
-Decreased physical activity and an increase in obesity
-Lower cognitive development
-Poor sleep habits
Parental screen time
Reductions in their own screen time are associated with decreased screen time for their children
