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Research Strategy
World War I, also known as the Great War, was a global conflict that lasted from 1914 to 1918. It involved the major powers of the world, divided into two opposing alliances: the Allies (led by France, Russia, and the United Kingdom) and the Central Powers (led by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire). The war was sparked by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary and resulted in the deaths of millions of soldiers and civilians. The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, officially ended the war and imposed heavy penalties on Germany, setting the stage for World War II.
General approach to reseach determined by the kind of question it hopes to answer
Descriptive Research Strategy
Focusses on individual variablesIntended to answer questions about the specific state of individual variables for a specific group of individuals
Linear Relationship
Data points produced by the changing values of two variables form a straight-line pattern
Curvilinear Relationship
consistent, preictable relationship between two variables but with a curved line
Positive Relationship
increases in one varabile tend to be accompanied by increases in the other
Negative Relationship
increases in one varabile tend to be accompanied by decreases in the other
Correlational Research Strategy
Only attempts to describe the relationship, not explain itEach variable is measured with numerical scores
Experimental Research Strategy
Answer cause-and-effect questions about the relationship between two variablesConducted with rigourous control to ensure unambiguous demonstration
Quasi-Experimental Research Strategy
Answer cause-and-effect questions about the relationship between two variables but can never produce unambiguous explanationUses some rigor and control but has a flaw
Non-Experimental Research Strategy
Attempts to demonstrate relationship between variables but does not attempt to explain itNo rigor and control, no cause-and-effect explanation
Difference between Correlational and Non-experimental research
Correlational: 1 group, 2 variables Non-Experimental: 2 groups, 1 variable
3 Aspects of a Research Study (decisions to be made)
Group vs individualSame indiviuals vs different individualsNumber of variables included
Research Strategy
General approach and goals of a research study. Determined by the question to be addressed and the answer you hope to obtain
Research Design
General framework for conducting a study/ implimenting a research strategy
Research Procedure
Exact, step by step description of a specific research study
External validity
the extent to which we can generalize the results of a research study to people, settings, times, measures, and characteristics other than those used in the study
Threat to external validity
characteristics that limit the ability to generalize the results
3 types of generalization
from sample to general populationfrom one research study to anotherfrom research study to real-world situation
Internal validity
produces a single, unambiguous explanation for the relationship betweeen two variables
Threat to internal validity
any factor that allows for an alternative explanation
Threats to generalizing across participants or Subjects
Selection biasCollege studentsVolunteer biasParticipant characteristicsCross-Species generalizations
Threats to generalizing across features of a study
Novelty effectMultiple Treatment InterferenceExperimenter characteristics
Threats to generalizing across features of the measures
SensitizationGenerality across response measuresTime of measurement
Extraneous variable
any variable in a study other than the specific variables being studied
Confounding variable
an extraneous variable that changes systematically along with the two variables being studied. Produces an alternative explanation for the observed relationship (threat to internal validity)
Participant variable/Individual Differences
personal characteristics that differ from one individual to the next (height, weight, gender, age, IQ, personality)
Time Related Variable
variables that change as time goes by
Experimenter Bias
Experimenters expectations or personal beliefs influence the findings of a study
Double-blind and Single-Blind studies
minimize the potential for experimenter bias
Experimental Research Strategy Elements
Manipulation: Researcher manipulates one variable to create a set of two or more treatment conditionsMeasurement: Second variable is measured to obtain a set of scores in each treatment conditionComparison: Scores in one condition are compared to the scores in another. Consistent differences mean that the manipulation caused the changesControl: All other variables are controlled to ensure they do not influence the variables being examined
Independent variable
Variable manipulated by the researcher
Treatment condition
Situation or environment characterized by one specific value of the manipulated variable. Experiment contains 2 or more
Levels
Different values of the independent variable
Dependent variable
Variable observed for changes to assess the effect of manipulating the independent variable
Extraneous variables
All variables in the study other than the independent and dependent variables
third-variable problem
relationship between two variables is coincidental not causational
Directionality problem
the existence of a relationship does not always explain the direction of the relationship
Manipulation
Identifying the specific values of the independent variable to be examined and creating treatment conditions to do so
Confounding variables
third variable that is allowed to change systematically along with the two variables being studied
Randomization
use of random process to help avoid a systematic relationship between two variables
Random assignment
the use of random process to assign participants to treatment conditions
Random process
all possible outcomes are equally likely
Experimental condition
conditions in which the treatment is administered
Control condition
the condition in which the treatment is not administered
no-treatment condition
condition in which participants do not receive the treatment being evaluated
placebo effect
positive response by a participant to an inert medication that has no effect on the body. they think the medication is effective
placebo control condition
participants receive a placebo instead of actual treatment
manipulation check
additional measure to assess how the participants perceived and interpreted the manipulation and/or assess the direct effect of the manipulation
important times for a manipulation check
Participant manipulationssubtle manipulationsplacebo controlsSimulations
Simulation
creation of conditions within an experiment that simulate or closely duplicate the natural environment in which they occur
Mundane realism
Superficial, usually physical, characteristics of the simulation, which probably have little positive effect on external validity
Experimental realism
The psychological aspects of the simulation
Field study
research conducted in a place the participants percieve as the natural environme
method of tenacity
information is accepted as true because it has always been believed or because superstition supports it.
method of intuition
information is accepted on the basis of a gut feeling
method of authority
a person relies on information or answers from an expert on the subject
method of faith
variant on method of authority - unquestioning trust in authority figure, Accept information from authority w/o doubt or challenge
rational method / rationalism
seeks answers by use of logical reasoning
premise statements
describe facts or assumptions that are presumed to be true
argument
set of premise statements that are logically combined to yield to a conclusion
empirical method
uses observation or direct sensory experience to obtain knowledge
inductive reasoning
using a small set of specific observations as basis for forming a general statements about larger set possible observations
variables
characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different individuals e.g. weather/ economy/ personal health - or - weight /height/personality between people
hypothesis
statement that describes a relationship between or among variable: A proposal not final answer
deductive reasoning
uses a general statement as basis for reaching a conclusion about specific
scientific method
method of acquiring knowledge. that uses observations to develop a hypothesis, then uses hypothesis to make logical predictions that can be empirically tested by making systematic observations. typically a cycle
Quantitative research
based on measuring variables for individual participants to obtain scores
Qualitative research
based on making observations that are Summarized + interpreted in a narrative report.
participants
human individuals who take part in research
subjects
non-human individuals who take part in research
Impact Factor
measure of the frequency with which the average article in a journal has been cited in a particular year
research confederate
pretend to be a participant but part of the research team
In a true experiment…
the researcher must manipulate an independent variable while controlling all variables other than independent + dep. variables
active deception
commission
between groups design
Participation is randomly assigned to the study conditions
within groups design
Participation is exposed to the different levels of the independent variable
passive deception
omission
when using deception
the benefit must outweigh the risk
theory
summarizes and organizes observations + inferences. provides tentative explanations for phenomena. + provides a basis for making predictions.
Scientific method step 1
posing a question
Scientific method step 2
Developing procedures to answer questions
Scientific method step 3
planning for + then making appropriate empirical observations
Scientific method step 4
rationally interpreting empirical observations
Scientific method step 5
using interpretations to predict other events
theory requirements
must be falsifiablesolid empirical baseparsimonious
Questions in Research
Form a statement that needs an answerIdentify general topic areaLook for relationships between variables
Common sources of research ideas
Scholarly literaturemodify an existing studydiscussion section at research reportpersonal interests / curiositiescasual observations.practical problems / questionsbehavioural theories
Hypothesis
a statement about relationships between variables
A hypothesis shows:
A relationship existsA cause + effect explanationLimitations fer relationshipRelationship depends an definition of variables
Mistakes in forming a hypothesis
Lack of interesttoo easy or hardtoo broadstay with first ideainadequate literature on topic
Basic Questions
aim to increase our scientific understanding of phenomena
Applied Questions
seeks to identify solutions to current problems
Basic Research
research studies intended to answer theoretical questions or rather knowledge simply for the sake of new knowledge.
Applied Research
intended to answer practical questions or solve practical problems.
Primary source
firsthand report of observations or research results written by the individuals who actually conducted the research and made the observations
Secondary source
a description or summary of another person’s work. A secondary source is written by someone who did not participate in the research or observations being discussed.
Characteristics of a good hypothesis
LogicalTestable – all of the variables, events, and individuals can be defined and observedRefutable – can be demonstrated to be false. Possible for the outcome to be different than the predictionPositive
Theory
set of statements about the mechanisms underlying a particular behavior.Help organize and unify different observations of the behavior and its relationship with other variables.Generates predictions about the behavior
Constructs
hypothetical attributes or mechanisms that help explain and predict behavior in a theory
Operational Definition
a procedure for indirectly measuring and defining a variable that cannot be observed or measured directly.specifies a measurement procedure (a set of operations) for measuring an external, observable behavior and uses the resulting measurements as a definition and measurement of the hypothetical construct
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