PSYC 201 Final Review (copy)

Ch. 1-7, 16 (missing ch. 8-10)

Research Strategy

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World War I, also known as the Great War, was a global conflict that lasted from 1914 to 1918. It involved the major powers of the world, divided into two opposing alliances: the Allies (led by France, Russia, and the United Kingdom) and the Central Powers (led by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire). The war was sparked by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary and resulted in the deaths of millions of soldiers and civilians. The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, officially ended the war and imposed heavy penalties on Germany, setting the stage for World War II.

General approach to reseach determined by the kind of question it hopes to answer

Descriptive Research Strategy

Focusses on individual variablesIntended to answer questions about the specific state of individual variables for a specific group of individuals

Linear Relationship

Data points produced by the changing values of two variables form a straight-line pattern

Curvilinear Relationship

consistent, preictable relationship between two variables but with a curved line

Positive Relationship

increases in one varabile tend to be accompanied by increases in the other

Negative Relationship

increases in one varabile tend to be accompanied by decreases in the other

Correlational Research Strategy

Only attempts to describe the relationship, not explain itEach variable is measured with numerical scores

Experimental Research Strategy

Answer cause-and-effect questions about the relationship between two variablesConducted with rigourous control to ensure unambiguous demonstration

Quasi-Experimental Research Strategy

Answer cause-and-effect questions about the relationship between two variables but can never produce unambiguous explanationUses some rigor and control but has a flaw

Non-Experimental Research Strategy

Attempts to demonstrate relationship between variables but does not attempt to explain itNo rigor and control, no cause-and-effect explanation

Difference between Correlational and Non-experimental research

Correlational: 1 group, 2 variables Non-Experimental: 2 groups, 1 variable

3 Aspects of a Research Study (decisions to be made)

Group vs individualSame indiviuals vs different individualsNumber of variables included

Research Strategy

General approach and goals of a research study. Determined by the question to be addressed and the answer you hope to obtain

Research Design

General framework for conducting a study/ implimenting a research strategy

Research Procedure

Exact, step by step description of a specific research study

External validity

the extent to which we can generalize the results of a research study to people, settings, times, measures, and characteristics other than those used in the study

Threat to external validity

characteristics that limit the ability to generalize the results

3 types of generalization

from sample to general populationfrom one research study to anotherfrom research study to real-world situation

Internal validity

produces a single, unambiguous explanation for the relationship betweeen two variables

Threat to internal validity

any factor that allows for an alternative explanation

Threats to generalizing across participants or Subjects

Selection biasCollege studentsVolunteer biasParticipant characteristicsCross-Species generalizations

Threats to generalizing across features of a study

Novelty effectMultiple Treatment InterferenceExperimenter characteristics

Threats to generalizing across features of the measures

SensitizationGenerality across response measuresTime of measurement

Extraneous variable

any variable in a study other than the specific variables being studied

Confounding variable

an extraneous variable that changes systematically along with the two variables being studied. Produces an alternative explanation for the observed relationship (threat to internal validity)

Participant variable/Individual Differences

personal characteristics that differ from one individual to the next (height, weight, gender, age, IQ, personality)

Time Related Variable

variables that change as time goes by

Experimenter Bias

Experimenters expectations or personal beliefs influence the findings of a study

Double-blind and Single-Blind studies

minimize the potential for experimenter bias

Experimental Research Strategy Elements

Manipulation: Researcher manipulates one variable to create a set of two or more treatment conditionsMeasurement: Second variable is measured to obtain a set of scores in each treatment conditionComparison: Scores in one condition are compared to the scores in another. Consistent differences mean that the manipulation caused the changesControl: All other variables are controlled to ensure they do not influence the variables being examined

Independent variable

Variable manipulated by the researcher

Treatment condition

Situation or environment characterized by one specific value of the manipulated variable. Experiment contains 2 or more

Levels

Different values of the independent variable

Dependent variable

Variable observed for changes to assess the effect of manipulating the independent variable

Extraneous variables

All variables in the study other than the independent and dependent variables

third-variable problem

relationship between two variables is coincidental not causational

Directionality problem

the existence of a relationship does not always explain the direction of the relationship

Manipulation

Identifying the specific values of the independent variable to be examined and creating treatment conditions to do so

Confounding variables

third variable that is allowed to change systematically along with the two variables being studied

Randomization

use of random process to help avoid a systematic relationship between two variables

Random assignment

the use of random process to assign participants to treatment conditions

Random process

all possible outcomes are equally likely

Experimental condition

conditions in which the treatment is administered

Control condition

the condition in which the treatment is not administered

no-treatment condition

condition in which participants do not receive the treatment being evaluated

placebo effect

positive response by a participant to an inert medication that has no effect on the body. they think the medication is effective

placebo control condition

participants receive a placebo instead of actual treatment

manipulation check

additional measure to assess how the participants perceived and interpreted the manipulation and/or assess the direct effect of the manipulation

important times for a manipulation check

Participant manipulationssubtle manipulationsplacebo controlsSimulations

Simulation

creation of conditions within an experiment that simulate or closely duplicate the natural environment in which they occur

Mundane realism

Superficial, usually physical, characteristics of the simulation, which probably have little positive effect on external validity

Experimental realism

The psychological aspects of the simulation

Field study

research conducted in a place the participants percieve as the natural environme

method of tenacity

information is accepted as true because it has always been believed or because superstition supports it.

method of intuition

information is accepted on the basis of a gut feeling

method of authority

a person relies on information or answers from an expert on the subject

method of faith

variant on method of authority - unquestioning trust in authority figure, Accept information from authority w/o doubt or challenge

rational method / rationalism

seeks answers by use of logical reasoning

premise statements

describe facts or assumptions that are presumed to be true

argument

set of premise statements that are logically combined to yield to a conclusion

empirical method

uses observation or direct sensory experience to obtain knowledge

inductive reasoning

using a small set of specific observations as basis for forming a general statements about larger set possible observations

variables

characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different individuals e.g. weather/ economy/ personal health - or - weight /height/personality between people

hypothesis

statement that describes a relationship between or among variable: A proposal not final answer

deductive reasoning

uses a general statement as basis for reaching a conclusion about specific

scientific method

method of acquiring knowledge. that uses observations to develop a hypothesis, then uses hypothesis to make logical predictions that can be empirically tested by making systematic observations. typically a cycle

Quantitative research

based on measuring variables for individual participants to obtain scores

Qualitative research

based on making observations that are Summarized + interpreted in a narrative report.

participants

human individuals who take part in research

subjects

non-human individuals who take part in research

Impact Factor

measure of the frequency with which the average article in a journal has been cited in a particular year

research confederate

pretend to be a participant but part of the research team

In a true experiment…

the researcher must manipulate an independent variable while controlling all variables other than independent + dep. variables

active deception

commission

between groups design

Participation is randomly assigned to the study conditions

within groups design

Participation is exposed to the different levels of the independent variable

passive deception

omission

when using deception

the benefit must outweigh the risk

theory

summarizes and organizes observations + inferences. provides tentative explanations for phenomena. + provides a basis for making predictions.

Scientific method step 1

posing a question

Scientific method step 2

Developing procedures to answer questions

Scientific method step 3

planning for + then making appropriate empirical observations

Scientific method step 4

rationally interpreting empirical observations

Scientific method step 5

using interpretations to predict other events

theory requirements

must be falsifiablesolid empirical baseparsimonious

Questions in Research

Form a statement that needs an answerIdentify general topic areaLook for relationships between variables

Common sources of research ideas

Scholarly literaturemodify an existing studydiscussion section at research reportpersonal interests / curiositiescasual observations.practical problems / questionsbehavioural theories

Hypothesis

a statement about relationships between variables

A hypothesis shows:

A relationship existsA cause + effect explanationLimitations fer relationshipRelationship depends an definition of variables

Mistakes in forming a hypothesis

Lack of interesttoo easy or hardtoo broadstay with first ideainadequate literature on topic

Basic Questions

aim to increase our scientific understanding of phenomena

Applied Questions

seeks to identify solutions to current problems

Basic Research

research studies intended to answer theoretical questions or rather knowledge simply for the sake of new knowledge.

Applied Research

intended to answer practical questions or solve practical problems.

Primary source

firsthand report of observations or research results written by the individuals who actually conducted the research and made the observations

Secondary source

a description or summary of another person’s work. A secondary source is written by someone who did not participate in the research or observations being discussed.

Characteristics of a good hypothesis

LogicalTestable – all of the variables, events, and individuals can be defined and observedRefutable – can be demonstrated to be false. Possible for the outcome to be different than the predictionPositive

Theory

set of statements about the mechanisms underlying a particular behavior.Help organize and unify different observations of the behavior and its relationship with other variables.Generates predictions about the behavior

Constructs

hypothetical attributes or mechanisms that help explain and predict behavior in a theory

Operational Definition

a procedure for indirectly measuring and defining a variable that cannot be observed or measured directly.specifies a measurement procedure (a set of operations) for measuring an external, observable behavior and uses the resulting measurements as a definition and measurement of the hypothetical construct