the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
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Encoding
the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.
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storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time
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Retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
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parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.
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sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
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short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
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long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
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working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
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explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"
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effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
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automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
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implicit memory
retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called procedural memory.)
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iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
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echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
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chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
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mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
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spacing effects
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
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testing effect
Enhanced performance on a memory test caused by being tested on the material to be remembered.
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shallow processing
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
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deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention
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Hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.
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flashbulb memory
A clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful and emotional event.
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long-term potentiation (LTP)
an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
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Recall
A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
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recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
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relearning
a measure of memory that asses the amount of time saved when learning material again
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Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
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mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
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context dependent memory
The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place.
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serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list
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cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
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concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
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creativity
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
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convergent thinking
narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
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divergent thinking
expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)
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anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
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retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
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Repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
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proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
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retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
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misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
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source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined
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deja vu
that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
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Algorithm
A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
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heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms
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insight
a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem
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confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
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mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
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intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
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representativeness heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
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availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
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Overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
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belief perseverance
clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
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Framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.
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language
our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
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phoneme
in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
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Morpheme
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)
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grammar
in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others
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Syntax
The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language.
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semantics
the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning
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babbling stage
beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
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one-word stage
the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words
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two-word stage
beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements
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telegraphic speech
early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs.
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aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).
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Broca's area
Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.
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Wernicke's area
controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
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linguistic determinism
Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think
Studied by 11 people
