Grade 11 Pre-AP Biology - Unit 3 Test Review

Phylogenetic Tree

diagram that shows the relationships between different species like a family tree

Dichotomous Tree

type of phylogenetic tree that branches off in pairs

Cladogram

type of phylogenetic tree that is arranged to emphasize which species are more primitive vs. more evolved

• most primitive species are on the left

• most evolved species are on the right

Levels of Classification

Domain → Kingdom → Phylum → Class → Order → Family → Genus → Species

Dumb King Phillip Can’t Order Fried Garlic Sauce

How do Viruses work?

virus lands on the surface of the cell and injects its own DNA into the host

the viral DNA then incorporates itself into the host DNA without the host knowing

lysogenic cycle → lytic cycle

Lysogenic Cycle

host divides and copies the viral DNA along with its own, creating new cells that also carry the infection

Lytic Cycle

viral DNA takes over the host’s cell and forces the cell to make viruses

once the viruses are made, the cell bursts open - spraying more viruses and leading to more infection

Why are viruses considered non-living?

• consist of little more than strands of DNA/RNA surrounded by a protective protein coat

• have no cellular organelles - must hijack other organisms in order to survive

Abiogenesis: Oparin and Haldane

proposed that it was possible for organic molecules to be synthesized from non-living things, and that the first cells could have been made this way

• very little oxygen in the atmosphere (oxygen prevents random formations of organic molecules)

Miller-Urey Experiment

tested Oparin and Haldane’s hypothesis by recreating the conditions of the early Earth inside glass tubes

Panspermia

the idea that life exists throughout the universe

• the Earth may have been struck by an asteroid containing traces of life

Heterotroph

need to obtain energy by gathering materials from its environment

Autotroph

can generate its own energy using sunlight (e.g. photosynthesis)

Prokaryotic

cellular components just thrown in the cell; no organization

no nucleus (DNA/RNA floats around)

Eukaryotic

have organelles + nucleus + organization

Domains

Archaea

Eubacteria

Eukaryota

Kingdoms

Archaea

Eubacteria

Protists

Plants

Fungi

Animals

Archaea

unicellular, prokaryotic

ancient bacteria

found in extreme environments where no other cells could survive

Eubacteria (Bacteria)

unicellular, prokaryotic

more ‘modern’ type of bacteria found today

How do Bacteria Reproduce?

asexually

cells divide in a process called binary fission

Binary Fission

the method in which bacteria asexually reproduce

• DNA is stored in a loop (circular chromosome)

• usually one main loop and some smaller loops called plasmids

• loops are copied and the cell divides sending one of each loops to either side

Plasmid

small loops of DNA within bacteria

Conjugation

direct transfer of a plasmid from cell to cell

Most Accurate way to Classify Bacteria

analysis of the genetic sequence

Coccus

Diplococci

Streptococci

Staphylococci

Sarcina

Tetrad

Bacillus

Diplobacilli

Streptobacilli

Palisades

Metabolic Needs of Bacteria (classification of bacteria)

• autotrophic vs heterotrophic

• aerobic (uses oxygen) vs anaerobic (doesn’t use oxygen)

Obligate Anaerobic Organism

will die if exposed to oxygen

Facultative Anaerobic Organism

can choose to use or not use oxygen

Gram Staining (classification of bacteria)

stain that stains some bacteria purple (Gram +) but others pink/red (Gram -)

Gram +

thick protein layer on their cell wall (stain purple)

Gram -

thin protein layer on their cell wall (stain pink)

Endospore Formation (classification of bacteria)

endospore is a small extremely tough pod that acts as an “escape pod”:

• DNA and bare minimum of cellular material are stored in the endospore while the rest of the cell can deteriorate

• endospore stays dormant until conditions improve and the cell can regenerate

Colony Morphology (classification of bacteria)

• grow bacteria in petri dishes with agar (jelly-like substance with basic nutrients)

• bacteria grows large enough to see with the naked eye called colonies

• shape + colour of the colonies can help indicate the species

Protists

unicellular, eukaryotic

gave rise to animals, plants and fungi

3 Types of Protists

Animal-Like

Plant-Like

Fungi-Like

Animal-Like Protists

• heterotrophs

• move around to capture food

  • e.g. some move around using small hairs (cilia) or by shifting their cytoplasm creating ‘feet’ called pseudopods

  • some use a tail to swim (flagellum)

Plant-Like Protists

• capable of photosynthesis

Fungi-Like Protists

• heterotrophic

• specialize in feeding on dead organic matter

  • e.g. unicellular slime molds

Endosymbiosis

one organism lives inside another, forming a mutually beneficial relationship → helps explain how eukaryotic cells may have formed from prokaryotic cells

Endosymbiosis: Mitochondria

• certain cells evolved to be highly efficient at generating energy from food

• one of these cells was consumed by another bacterium

• the predator retains the other cell inside of it to get it to generate food

• the two cells are dependent on each other and essentially act as a single cell

Endosymbiosis: Chloroplast

• certain cells evolved to have the ability to create food from sunlight (photosynthesis)

• one of these cells was consumed by another bacterium

• predator retains the other cell

• two cells are dependent on each other and essentially act as a single cell

Evidence for Endosymbiosis

• mitochondria + chloroplasts have a double membrane layer → inner membrane is the original membrane (got engulfed)

• mitochondria + chloroplasts have their own separate DNA

  • in animals, mitochondria in inherited from mother, as sperm only gives DNA

Fungi

multicellular, eukaryotic

• use external digestion

• cell walls made from chitin

• body is the mycelium

• may have gills that are lined with thousands of basidia that hold the spores

External Digestion

excrete digestive enzymes to break down food and then absorb the nutrients into their cells

Chitin

type of carbohydrate that makes up the cell walls of fungi

Hyphae

formed by long chains of fungal cells

make up the mycelium

Mycelium

body of a fungus

made up of hyphae

Types of Fungus (Nutrition)

• Decomposers

  • feed off of dead organic matter

• Parasites

  • feed off organisms while they are still alive

• Mutualists

  • live in the roots of plants

  • fungi helps plant absorb nutrients from soil, plant gives fungi sugar

• Predatory

  • have modified hyphae that trap microscopic organisms for food

Fungal Reproduction

both asexual and sexual reproduction

asexual: fungus produces spores that drop to the ground and form a new fungus

sexual: hyphae filaments of 2 nearby fungi will grow towards each other and merge haploid cells to form a new diploid cell

Fungal Networks in Forests

fungi and trees may connect underground and share nutrients and chemicals that help against disease

Plants

multicellular, eukaryotic

• capable of photosynthesis

• have cell walls made of cellulose

• believed to have evolved from photosynthetic protists

Features that Helped Plants move from Water to Land

Vascular Tissue

Seeds

Flowers/Fruits

Vascular Tissue (Water to Land)

structures designed to pump fluids through the plant (e.g. roots) → on land, allows plant to absorb and move water without drying out

Seeds (Water to Land)

a structure that protects newly formed plants inside a hard covering → on land, allows young plants to move from place to place without drying out

Flowers/Fruits (Water to Land)

flowers allow for pollination which increase the chances of sexual reproduction

flowers become fruits which store the seeds → on land, allows for the spread of haploid gametes + extra covering for seeds without them drying out

Bryophytes (plants)

photosynthesize

multicellular

Ferns (plants)

photosynthesize

multicellular

vascular tissue

Gymnosperms (plants)

photosynthesize

multicellular

vascular tissue

seeds

Angiosperms (plants)

photosynthesize

multicellular

vascular tissue

seeds

fruits/flowers

Animals

multicellular, eukaryotic

• heterotrophic

Order of Evolution for Animals

From Unicellular to Multicellular

From Unspecialized Cells to Specialized Cells

From Radial Symmetry to Bilateral Symmetry

From Cells being Packed Together to Leaving Some Space

From No Segmentation to Segmentation

From No Spinal Cord to Having a Spinal Cord

From Protostome to Deuterostome

From Unicellular to Multicellular (ANIMALS)

first multicellular animals were sponges

From Unspecialized Cells to Specialized Cells (ANIMALS)

first animals to develop specialized cells were jellyfish

From Radial Symmetry to Bilateral Symmetry (ANIMALS)

first animals to develop bilateral symmetry were flat worms

Cephalization

having a head and a butt

From Cells being Packed Together to Leaving Some Space (ANIMALS)

first animals to have a pseudocoelome were roundworms

first animals to have a coelom were mollusks

Coelom

fluid-filled cavity in the body that contains organs

Coelomate

have a coelom

Acoelomate

don’t have a coelom

Pseudocoelomate

in between having and not having a coelom

From No Segmentation to Segmentation (ANIMALS)

3 phyla that exhibit segmentation: annelids (earth worms), arthropods (insects, arachnids, crustaceans), and chordates (animals with a nerve cord)

From No Spinal Cord to Having a Spinal Cord (ANIMALS)

first animals to have a spinal cord were the jawless fish

Vertebrate

animals with a properly developed spinal cord protected by vertebrae

From Protostome to Deuterostome (ANIMALS)

all animal phyla are protostomes EXCEPT chordates and sea stars

Protostome

all organisms where the blastopore becomes the mouth

Deuterostome

all organisms where the blastopore becomes the anus

Blastopore

opening in the central cavity of an embryo during development

The Big Picture

Common Features Among the Chordates

• Nerve cord

• Brain at the front

• Notochord/Vertebrae

• Pharyngeal slits (gills)

Notochord

tissue that supports the nerve cord

Tunicates

most primitive chordate

Lancelet

primitive chordate

• considered to be the ancestor of the fish

Hagfishes & Lampreys

jawless fish

have vertebrae

Cartilaginous Fishes vs. Bony Fishes: Sharks vs. Fish

first skeletons were made of cartilage (sharks) then later calcified to become proper bone (fish)

The first fish to move onto land would have given rise to the __________, and later ______, _____ and _______.

amphibians, and later reptiles, birds and mammals

Mammals are known for…

• Having fur/hair

  • Having mammary glands that produce milk (females)

Monotreme Mammals

mammals that lay eggs

Marsupial Mammals

mammals that give birth and have pouches for offspring

Placental Mammals

mammals that have an internal placenta for the offspring to develop inside the mother

Whales and Dolphins are…

Mammals

How would you write the name of a species?

genus, species (italicized, with genus starting with capital letter)