SOCIAL AREA PSYCHOLOGY PAST QUESTIONS

With reference to Milgram's study of obedience:

Describe what the study found in relation to how individuals respond to people in authority. [4] Specimen

• Milgram's study found that, in general, individuals will obey a legitimate authority figure, even if what they are asked to do goes against their ethical and moral beliefs. He found that the majority of participants were prepared to obey what they believed to be a legitimate authority figure by administering severe electric shocks to another individual merely because they made errors in a word-pairing task.

• Milgram's study found that, although in general most individuals will obey a legitimate authority figure when they are asked to do things that go against their ethical and moral beliefs they show signs of extreme tension such as sweating, trembling, stuttering, etc.

From Levine's study into cross-cultural altruism:

Outline how Levine investigated helping behaviour. [3] Specimen

• A field experiment was conducted in large cities around the world. Three types of helping behaviour were measured: alerting a pedestrian who had dropped a pen; offering to help a pedestrian with a hurt leg trying to reach a pile of dropped magazines; assisting a blind person across the street.

In Bocchiaro et al.'s study on disobedience and whistleblowing, eight pilot tests were carried out before the nain study: Explain why Bocchiaro carried out these pilot tests. [2] 2017

• They were conducted to ensure the procedure was credible as a study on sensory deprivation

• To ensure that the cover story on sensory deprivation given was morally acceptable

• These tests served to standardise the experimenter - authority behaviour throughout the experimental period

In Bocchiaro et al.'s study into disobedience and whistleblowing a sample of 149 students were selected for the main study: Outline one way this study may be considered ethnocentric. [2] 2017

Bocchiaro’s study may be considered ethnocentric because only students from one cultural location were studied (Amsterdam) and so results cannot be applied to other cities/cultures.

Explain how Levine et al.'s study into cross-cultural altruism informs our understanding of cultural diversity in helping behaviour. [3] 2017

Levine found cross-cultural differences in helping behaviour (1). For example, the cities in countries with high simpatia (Brazil, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Mexico and Spain) were more likely to help a stranger in need than non-simpatia countries (New York)

Cities that were more helpful tended to have lower Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) than those with higher PPP (1)

Outline one difference between Milgram's study of obedience and Bocchiaro et al.'s study into disobedience and whistleblowing. [2] 2018

• Milgram conducted his study in the New Haven area of the USA/the USA/America (1) whereas Bocchiaro et al. conducted their study in Amsterdam/the Netherlands/Holland (1).

• Milgram's study was conducted in 1963/the 1960's (1) whereas Bocchiaro et al.'s study was conducted in 2012/2010's/within the last 10 years (1).

• Milgram's study was all male/between the ages of 20 and 50 years/from the New Haven area of the USA/from a wide range of occupations whereas Bocchiaro et al.'s sample contained both males and females/had a mean age of around 20.8/20 years/from the Amsterdam area of the Netherlands/were all undergraduates/ university students/students (1).

Outline Piliavin et al.'s 'Subway Samaritan' study and describe ways in which it could relate to the article.

Support your answer with evidence from the article. [8] 2018

Piliavin et al. conducted a field experiment on the New York subway. The experiment had four independent variables:(i) type of victim (drunk or carrying a cane), (ii) race of victim (black or white), (iii) effect of a model (after 70 or 150 seconds, from the critical or adjacent area), or no model at all, (iv) size of the witnessing group (a naturally occurring independent variable). The dependent variables (recorded by two female observers seated in the adjacent area were: i) frequency of help, (il) speed of help, (ii) race of helper, (iv) sex of helper,

(v) movement out of critical area, (vi) verbal comments by bystanders.

Key findings were: The cane victim received spontaneous help 95% of the time (62/65 trials) compared to the drunk victim 50% of the time (19/38 trials). Overall there was 100% help for the cane victim compared to 81% help for the drunk victim. Help was offered more quickly to the cane victim (a median of 5 seconds compared to 109 seconds delay for the drunk victim). 90% of the first helpers were males.

Conclusions that can be drawn from this study include: an individual who appears ill/lame is more likely to receive help than one who appears drunk; individuals whom others consider not responsible for their situation are more likely to receive help than individuals whom others feel brought the situation upon themselves; bystanders conduct a cost-reward analysis before deciding whether or not to help a victim.

This study links with the article because it shows that individuals whom others consider responsible for their situation stand a strong chance of not receiving help. In the article, the American athlete did not help the Mexican because he said it was 'his own fault he was affected so badly by the heat. He should have done more training in hot climates like this one in Brazil'.

Likewise, the drunk victim received less help than the cane victim as bystanders thought he was responsible for his own condition.

The study also links to the article because Piliavin et al. suggested that bystanders conduct a cost-reward analysis before deciding whether or not to help a victim in need. Those who helped either the drunk or the cane victim decided the rewards of helping outweighed the costs. Similarly, the article shows that the Brazilian athlete felt the rewards of helping the Mexican (possible praise, thanks and a feeling of satisfaction) outweighed the costs (losing the race. On the other hand, the American athlete felt the costs (not winning the race) outweighed the benefits (possible praise, thanks and a feeling of satisfaction) and so did not offer the Mexican any help.

Explain how the findings from Milgram's study relate to the key theme of responses to people in authority. [3] 2019

In Milgram's study most people obeyed orders (1) from the experimenter who represented authority (1) by administering the highest possible voltage to someone they believed was another participant because they were under instruction to (1).

Piliavin et al. carried out a study into responses to people in need.

Identify two materials used in this study. [2]. 2019

• (black) cane or stick

• paper bag and/or bottle

• (Eisenhower/army) jacket or coat

• (old) slacks (trousers)

• stopwatch or similar

• notepad/checklist

Give two ways in which this study may be considered ethnocentric. [2] 2019

• only black and white victims were used not other ethnic groups
  all the models were white
  the study was only carried out in one city/one country

• there is a cultural assumption that being drunk is a bad thing

• there is a cultural assumption that someone with a disability is vulnerable

Compare Piliavin et al.'s study with Levine et al.'s study into responses to people in need by suggesting either one difference or one similarity between them. [4] 2019

Possible differences

• type of experiment used e.g. quasi vs field, quasi vs pure, manipulating IV vs naturally occurring IV

• one culture vs cross-cultural research

• victim as IV vs helper as IV one variable vs multiple variables
  one helping scenario vs three helping scenarios

• one is ethnocentric the other is not

Possible similarities:

• method e.g. both field studies (accept experiment)

• both located in natural environment

• opportunistic sampling use of male experimenters

• use of quantitative data

• Use of scenarios where people had a disability

• High ecological validity

One difference is how the independent variable occurs (1). Piliavin et al. manipulated the IV themselves whereas it was naturally occurring in Levine et al's study (1). Piliavin had direct control over how the victim presented themselves (1) whereas Levine et al.'s IV could not be set up because it was based on the country a person already inhabited (1).

One similarity is the sampling method (1). Both studies used opportunistic sampling (1). In the case of Piliavin et al it was members of public how happened to be travelling on the subway when the fall was staged (1). In one of Levine et al's scenarios, the participants were pedestrians who happened to be using a crossing at the same time as a confederate posing as a blind person (1).

Explain how Milgram's (1963) study into obedience can be related to the social area. [3] 2020

Social Area: Looks at the factors that lead to us to behave in a given way due to the presence of others whether actual, implied or imagined.

Explain the extent to which Bocchiaro et al.'s (2012) study into disobedience changes our understanding of individual, social and cultural diversity. [6] 2020

• This area of research led to the idea that all individuals are susceptible; if they are asked by a figure in authority, to gradually carry out terrible acts they would previously have said were inconceivable.
  

• Bocchiaro et al found similar results and extended the evidence to include female behaviour along with male behaviour.
  

• The contemporary study, Bocchiaro et al, uses students so may be limited in its ability to explain how different groups in society may behave but does look at a different part of society to Milgram who studied volunteers with a range of occupations.

• Bocchiaro furthered Milgram's ethnocentric research and showed that obedience is high cross-culturally as well as the importance of considering individual explanations alongside situational ones.
  The contemporary study also showed that obedience was similar over time and research in this area suggests that people are inherently obedient

Explain how the procedure from Piliavin et al.'s (1969) study relates to the key theme of responses to people in need. [3] 2021

In Piliavin et al's study passengers response times were measured (1) when a confederate posed as a person in need by staggering and then collapsing (1) either by appearing drunk or disabled (1).

Levine et al. study (2001) carried out a study into responses to people in need. [2] 2021

• The only statistically reliable relationship was between the economic productivity measure and overall helping: cities that were more helpful tended to have lower PPP.

• Although statistically insignificant, there was a small relationship between walking speed and overall helping, with participants in faster cities somewhat less likely to help.

• More individualistic countries showed somewhat less overall helping and less helping in the hurt leg situation than collectivist countries, but none of the correlations reached significance.

• There was no relationship between population size and helping behaviour.

• The two community variables of economic productivity and individualism-collectivism and walking speed were highly intercorrelated.

• Simpatia countries were, on average, more helpful than non simpatia countries.Overall, a city's helping rate was relatively stable across all three measures.

• No significant gender differences in helping behaviour were found in the two conditions.

• There were low correlations between the community variables and helping measures.

Explain why this study can be described as a quasi experiment. [2] 2021

Because the experiment used a naturally occurring IV (1) as a person's place of residence is predetermined and not in the control of the researchers (1).

Briefly describe the sample used in Levine's study into helping behaviour. [2] 2022

• 23

• Cities/countries

• Over 16's

• Reference to 2 or more cities/countries/continent

• Exclusions (or inclusions) - people who were physically disabled, very old, carrying heavy packages and so forth (those not fully capable or expected to help) were excluded.

• Both men and women

• All cities had pop of 230,000

Outline one way in which Levine's study may show sampling bias. [2] 2022

• Age biased - as young and very old people were not selected.

• Researcher bias - there may have been an unconscious bias in who researchers approached giving an unrepresentative sample.

• Culturally biased - too many individualistic cultures studied.

• Culturally biased - cities were used to represent the whole country's culture/rural areas and towns not used.

• Culturally biased - sample too small to represent all 196 countries

Explain how one core study from the social area can be related to the concept of holism. [5] 2022

Possible studies:

• Bocchiaro et al - for a looking at a number of situational and personality factors that impact whistleblowing

• Piliavin et al - for investigating a number of independent variables that may interact to influence helping behaviour

• Levine et al - for investigating four community variables across 23 cultures

• Milgram - for concluding that authority, prestige and payment may have worked together to impact on obedience.

Explain how one core study from the social area can be related to the concept of reductionism. [5] 2022

Possible study:

• Milgram - for just focusing on authority and its impact on the agentic state as a factor in obedience

• Levine et al - reduced down to situational factors rather than dispositional factors.

Describe one application of the social area. [4] 2022

• reducing blind obedience e.g. in grooming, brainwashing

• increasing obedience e.g. in schools, prisons, etc

• encouraging helping behaviour e.g. community programmes, supporting charities

• changing attitudes e.g. advertising, education

• promoting conformity and cohesion e.g. political campaigns, in schools

• crowd control e.g. at large public events, dealing with riots and protests

• tackling anti-social behaviour

Outline the procedure used in one core study and briefly explain how this relates to the social area. [6] 2022

Piliavin et al staged a scenario on an underground train where the 'victims' either smelled of alcohol and carried a bottle wrapped tightly in a brown bag or appeared sober and carried a black cane.(1) The observers recorded the dependent variables. On each trial one observer noted the race, sex and location of every rider seated or standing in the critical area for helping. In addition she counted the total number of individuals who came to the victim's assistance. She also recorded the race, sex and location of every helper.(1) The second observer coded the race, sex and location of all persons in the adjacent area. She also recorded the latency of the first helper's arrival after the victim had fallen and on appropriate trials, the latency of the first helper's arrival after a programmed model had arrived. (1) The victim stood near a pole in the critical area. After about 70 seconds he staggered forward and collapsed. Until receiving help he remained laid on the floor looking at the ceiling. If he received no help by the time the train stopped the model helped him to his feet. At the stop the team disembarked and waited separately until other passengers had left the station. They then changed platforms to repeat the process in the opposite direction.(1) This relates to the social area as the study is clearly set up in a social context - a train carriage full of passengers.(1) The situation also demands that these passengers consider their social behaviour — in this case whether to help another or not. (1)

Compare the social area with the developmental area in relation to their strengths and weaknesses. [15] 2022

Possible strengths/weaknesses of the social area:

• Scientific - use of experiments

• High experimental realism

• Can explain extreme behaviours

• Ethical issues around research

• Lack of mundane realism

• Ethnocentric

• Ignores individual differences in response

• Too deterministic

• Useful with many applications

Possible strengths/weaknesses of the development area:

• Considers both nature/nurture

• Shows development over a time span

• Shows how to support children's development and therefore well-being

• Participants are often children leading to ethical concerns

• Ethnocentric

• Too deterministic

Explain how Milgram's (1963) study into obedience may be considered ethnocentric. [3] 2023

Knowledge of the concept of ethnocentrism e.g. unrepresentative of other ethnic groups, cannot generalise to other societies, cultural bias, way of thinking focussed on your own cultural group etc

Briefly relating to Milgram's study e.g. only Americans were studied, carried out in America.

Relating to Milgram's study in a more developed way e.g. Milgram's study only investigated Americans (1) whereas other countries may show higher or lower levels of obedience to authority depending on cultural norms (1).

Describe the procedure used in Piliavin et al's (1969) Subway Samaritan study. [6] 2023

Key features include:

• Research team: There were 4 teams of 4 researchers: 2 female observers, 2 males - one acting as victim, one the model.

• Victim description: The victims (3 white, 1 black) were all male. They either smelled of liquor and carried a liquor bottle in a brown bag or appeared sober and carried a black cane.

• Model conditions: The models (all white) were males. There were 4 model conditions:

(i) Critical area - early. (ii) Critical area - late. (iii) Adjacent area - early. (iv) Adjacent area - late.

• Observations: On each trial one observer noted the race, sex and location of every rider seated or standing in the critical area. In addition, she counted the total number of individuals who came to the victim's assistance. She also recorded the race, sex and location of every helper. The second observer coded the race, sex and location of all persons in the adjacent area. She also recorded the latency of the first helper's arrival after the victim had fallen and on appropriate trials, the latency of the first helper's arrival after the model had arrived. Both observers recorded comments spontaneously made by nearby passengers and attempted to elicit comments from a rider sitting next to them.

• Location of research team: Observers took seats outside the critical area

• The staged emergency The victim stood near a pole in the critical area. After about 70 seconds he staggered forward and collapsed. Until receiving help he remained supine/lying straight upwards on the floor looking at the ceiling. If he received no help by the time the train stopped the model helped him to his feet.

• Standardised features: All models wore identical clothing. The victim acted identically in both conditions.

• At the stop the team disembarked and waited separately until other passengers had left the station. They then changed platforms to repeat the process in the opposite direction.