demography

What is demography?

Demography is the study of populations and their characteristics, including population size, age structure, births, deaths and migration.

What are the key demographic features of a population?

Key demographic features include population size, whether a population is growing or declining, and age structure, which refers to the average age of a population.

What factors affect population size?

Population size is affected by natural change (births and deaths) and migration, including immigration and emigration.

What is natural change?

Natural change refers to the difference between births and deaths in a population.

What is migration?

Migration is the movement of people from one place to another.

What is immigration?

Immigration is the movement of people into a country.

What is emigration?

Emigration is the movement of people out of a country.

What is net migration?

Net migration is the difference between immigration and emigration.

What is the birth rate?

The birth rate is the number of live births per 1,000 people per year.

How has the UK birth rate changed over time?

The UK birth rate declined significantly from 28.7 births per 1,000 people in 1900 to around 12.2 births per 1,000 in 2014.

What were the baby booms?

Baby booms were periods of increased birth rates, including after WWI and WWII when returning soldiers started families after delaying childbirth, and the 1960s baby boom.

Why did baby booms occur after WWI and WWII?

Returning soldiers began families after delaying marriage and childbirth during wartime.

What happened to birth rates after the 1960s baby boom?

Birth rates declined during the 1970s due to changing social and economic conditions.

What is the Total Fertility Rate (TFR)?

The total fertility rate is the average number of children a woman is expected to have during her fertile years.

How has the UK TFR changed?

The TFR decreased from 2.95 children per woman in 1964 to 1.63 in 2001, before increasing slightly to 1.83 in 2014.

What are the reasons for declining fertility rates?

Reasons include more women remaining childless, women delaying childbirth and greater career opportunities for women.

How have changes in women's position contributed to declining birth rates?

Women have gained equal legal rights, increased educational opportunities, entered paid employment, gained access to contraception and abortion, experienced easier divorce and developed changing attitudes towards motherhood.

How does Sarah Harper (2012) explain declining fertility?

Harper argues female education is the most important reason for declining fertility because it changes women's aspirations, creates opportunities outside motherhood, encourages family planning and delays childbirth.

What evidence supports Sarah Harper's argument about education and fertility?

In 2012, 1 in 5 women aged 45 were childless, showing women increasingly delayed or rejected motherhood.

Evaluate Harper's explanation of declining fertility.

Harper supports the idea that women's opportunities reduce family size, but economic factors also influence decisions about having children.

What is the Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)?

The infant mortality rate is the number of babies dying before their first birthday per 1,000 live births.

How has the UK IMR changed?

The UK IMR declined from 154 deaths per 1,000 births in 1900 to 4 per 1,000 in 2012.

How does Harper link declining IMR to lower birth rates?

Harper argues parents previously had more children because they expected some would die. As survival rates improved, parents chose to have fewer children.

What factors caused the decline in infant mortality?

Causes include improved housing and sanitation, cleaner water, better nutrition, increased health knowledge, vaccinations, antibiotics and improved maternity care.

How do Brass and Kabir (1978) criticise Harper's explanation of IMR and fertility?

They argue birth rates began falling in urban areas, but IMR declined first in rural areas, suggesting falling IMR cannot fully explain declining fertility.

How did children change from economic assets to economic liabilities?

In pre-industrial societies children contributed economically through work. In modern societies child labour laws, compulsory education and higher expectations mean children cost families more.

Why do modern children create greater financial costs for families?

Parents spend more money on education, clothing, technology and activities, encouraging families to have fewer children.

What is child-centredness?

Child-centredness refers to modern families focusing more attention, time, money and emotional investment on fewer children.

How has child-centredness changed family size?

Families have moved from quantity to quality, meaning parents have fewer children but invest more resources in each child.

What are the effects of falling birth rates on family structure?

Smaller families allow more women to enter employment and encourage dual-earner couples.

What is the dependency ratio?

The dependency ratio is the relationship between the working population and dependent groups, including children and elderly people.

How do falling birth rates affect dependency ratios?

In the short term, fewer children reduce dependency, but in the long term fewer workers may be available while the elderly population increases.

How do falling birth rates affect public services?

They influence demand for schools, maternity services and housing policies, although these are also affected by political decisions.

What is the death rate?

The death rate is the number of deaths per 1,000 people per year.

How has the UK death rate changed?

The UK death rate declined from 19 deaths per 1,000 people in 1900 to 8.9 deaths per 1,000 in 2012.

How does Tranter (1996) explain declining death rates?

Tranter argues over three quarters of the decline in death rates between 1850–1970 came from reducing infectious diseases such as TB, smallpox and measles.

How does McKeown (1972) explain declining death rates?

McKeown argues improved nutrition caused up to half the reduction in death rates because better diets increased resistance to disease.

Evaluate McKeown's explanation of death rates.

McKeown is criticised because he cannot explain why women lived longer despite historically receiving less food, and some diseases increased despite improved nutrition.

How did medical improvements reduce death rates?

After 1950, medical advances such as antibiotics, vaccinations, blood transfusions, the NHS, and improved surgery reduced mortality.

How do lifestyle changes affect death rates?

Sarah Harper argues falling smoking rates reduced death rates, although obesity has become a modern health issue.

How did public health improvements reduce death rates?

Better housing, clean water, sewage systems, food safety laws and Clean Air Acts reduced disease and improved survival.

What is life expectancy?

Life expectancy is the average number of years someone born in a particular year is expected to live.

How has UK life expectancy changed?

In 1900, male life expectancy was around 50 years and female life expectancy around 57 years. By 2013, it increased to around 90.7 years for men and 94 years for women.

Why do women generally live longer than men?

Women often have longer life expectancy because they are less likely to work in dangerous jobs and historically had healthier lifestyles.

How does social class affect life expectancy?

Working-class people have lower life expectancy due to poorer housing, worse diets, dangerous jobs and lower income.

What did Walker (2011) find about class differences in life expectancy?

Walker found people in the poorest areas die around 7 years earlier than people in the richest areas, with a 17-year difference in disability-free life expectancy.

What is an ageing population?

An ageing population occurs when the average age of society increases because people live longer and fertility rates decline.

How has the UK's average age changed?

The average age increased from 34.1 in 1971 to 40.3 in 2013 and was predicted to reach 42.8 by 2037.

What causes an ageing population?

Causes include increased life expectancy, lower infant mortality and declining fertility.

What are the effects of an ageing population on public services?

Older populations increase demand for healthcare, social care and housing support, although not all elderly people are dependent.

Why are one-person pensioner households increasing?

More elderly people live alone because women live longer and are often younger than their husbands, creating the feminisation of later life.

How does an ageing population affect the dependency ratio?

More elderly people increase dependency. In 2015 there were 3.2 workers per pensioner, predicted to fall to 2.8 by 2033.

How can the effects of an ageing population be reduced?

Retirement ages are increasing and many elderly people remain economically active.

What is ageism?

Ageism is discrimination or stereotyping based on age.

What is structured dependency?

Structured dependency is the idea that older people are excluded from work and become dependent on society.

How does Phillipson (1982) explain ageism?

Phillipson argues elderly people are less useful to capitalism because they are no longer productive, so the state provides limited support and families, especially women, provide care.

How do postmodernists view old age?

Postmodernists argue traditional life stages are breaking down and identities are increasingly based on consumption rather than production.

How does Hunt (2005) explain postmodern ageing identities?

Hunt argues people can create identities regardless of age through consumption, such as anti-ageing products, exercise and cosmetic procedures.

What inequalities exist among elderly people?

Class inequalities exist because middle-class elderly people often have better pensions and savings, while working-class elderly people experience lower income and poorer health. Gender inequalities exist because women often have lower pensions due to caring responsibilities.

What is migration?

Migration is the movement of people from one place to another.

What are push factors?

Push factors encourage people to leave a country, including unemployment, poverty, conflict and persecution.

What are pull factors?

Pull factors attract migrants, including better jobs, higher wages and safety.

What were historical patterns of immigration to the UK?

Before WWII, immigration included Irish migrants, Jewish refugees and Europeans. From the 1950s Caribbean migrants arrived, followed by South Asian migrants in the 1960s and 1970s.

How has migration affected UK families?

Migration has increased ethnic diversity and created greater family diversity.

How does migration affect population size?

Migration increases population size and without migration the UK population would decline.

How does migration affect age structure?

Migrants are often younger, reducing the average age and increasing fertility rates.

How does migration affect dependency ratios?

Migration can reduce dependency because migrants are usually working age and contribute taxes, although migrant children initially increase dependency.

What is globalisation?

Globalisation is the increasing interconnectedness between societies through global markets, communication technology and international links.

What are the main trends in global migration?

Global migration shows acceleration, differentiation and increasing diversity.

What does acceleration of migration mean?

Acceleration means migration is increasing. The UN (2013) found international migration increased by 33% between 2000 and 2013.

What does differentiation of migration mean?

Differentiation means migration includes different groups such as permanent migrants, temporary workers, refugees and students.

What is super-diversity?

Super-diversity is Steven Vertovec's (2007) idea that globalisation has created more complex migrant populations differing by legal status, religion, culture and class.

What types of migrants does Robin Cohen (2006) identify?

Cohen identifies citizens with full rights, denizens who are privileged migrants such as wealthy businesspeople, and helots who are exploited low-paid or vulnerable migrants.

What is the feminisation of migration?

The feminisation of migration refers to the increasing number of women migrating, often to perform caring and domestic work in richer countries.

How do Ehrenreich and Hochschild (2003) explain female migration?

They argue women from poorer countries migrate because of growing demand for care work, Western women entering employment, men avoiding domestic labour and lack of state childcare.

What is a hybrid identity?

A hybrid identity combines different cultural identities.

What did John Eade (1994) find about Bangladeshi Muslims in Britain?

Eade found people identified as Muslim, Bengali and British, showing individuals can combine multiple identities.

What are transnational identities?

Transnational identities are identities that are not tied to one nation because migrants maintain connections through technology, communication and global networks.

How does Eriksen (2007) explain transnational identities?

Eriksen argues globalisation allows migrants to maintain links with multiple societies, creating identities beyond national boundaries.

What is assimilation?

Assimilation is when migrants are expected to adopt the culture of the host society.

How does Castles (2000) criticise assimilation?

Castles argues assimilation can create exclusion because minority groups may feel their identity and culture are being attacked.

What is multiculturalism?

Multiculturalism accepts cultural diversity and recognises different cultural identities.

How does Eriksen distinguish between shallow and deep diversity?

Shallow diversity includes food and festivals, while deep diversity includes religion and marriage practices. States often accept shallow diversity but challenge deep diversity.

What is Castles and Kosack's (1973) divided working class argument?

They argue capitalism benefits when migrants become scapegoats because tensions divide workers and prevent united action against capitalism.

How can Functionalism explain population change?

Functionalists argue population changes help society adapt, such as smaller families creating new family structures and migration providing labour.

How can Marxism explain population change?

Marxists argue population changes benefit capitalism because migrants provide cheap labour and elderly people are less valuable when outside production.

How can Feminism explain population change?

Feminists argue declining fertility can increase women's opportunities, but female migration can reinforce gender inequalities through caring roles.

How can Postmodernism explain population change?

Postmodernists argue population diversity creates greater choice, flexible identities and diverse family forms.

Which sociologists are important for population and migration essays?

Key sociologists include Sarah Harper (fertility decline), Brass and Kabir (IMR criticism), McKeown (nutrition), Tranter (infectious diseases), Walker (life expectancy inequality), Phillipson (ageism), Hunt (postmodern ageing), Vertovec (super-diversity), Ehrenreich and Hochschild (feminisation of migration), Eriksen (transnational identities) and Castles (assimilation criticism).