Untitled Flashcards Set

Memory

How we take in, store, and remember information like facts, experiences, or skills.

Three steps in memory

Encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Encoding

Turning information into a form your brain can understand and remember.

Selective attention

Focusing on one thing, like listening to a teacher.

Divided attention

Trying to focus on many things at once, like texting and watching TV.

Sustained attention

Staying focused for a long time, like reading for 30 minutes straight.

Levels of processing

Shallow processing focuses on how something looks or sounds; deep processing focuses on the meaning.

Elaboration

Adding meaning to information, linking new words to a memory or using it in a sentence.

Storage

Keeping information in your brain so you can use it later.

Atkinson-Shiffrin theory

Memory has three stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory memory

Holds information from your senses for a short time.

Echoic memory

Sensory memory for sounds that lasts a few seconds.

Iconic memory

Sensory memory for visuals that lasts about half a second.

Short-term memory

Holds small amounts of information for about 30 seconds.

Chunking

Putting information into groups to remember more.

Working memory

Helps you use and hold information at the same time.

Phonological loop

Part of working memory that deals with sounds.

Visuospatial sketchpad

Part of working memory that deals with images.

Central executive

Part of working memory that focuses and controls information.

Long-term memory

Holds information for a long time.

Explicit memory

Information you can verbally express.

Semantic memory

Facts, like 'the sky is blue'.

Episodic memory

Events, like your last birthday.

Implicit memory

Information you remember without trying.

Procedural memory

Skills, like riding a bike.

Priming

When something you saw earlier helps you remember.

Retrieval

Getting information out of memory.

Serial position effect

We remember the first and last things in a list best.

Primacy effect

Better recall of the first items in a list.

Recency effect

Better recall of the last items in a list.

Recall

Bringing up information on your own.

Recognition

Seeing the right answer and picking it.

Encoding specificity principle

You remember things better if you're in the same place or mood as when you learned it.

Context-dependent memory

Better recall when in the same context as learning.

Autobiographical memory

A memory from your life.

Flashbulb memory

A clear, emotional memory of a big event.

Motivated forgetting

Forgetting something on purpose.

Causes of forgetting

Poor encoding, interference, decay, or inability to retrieve memories.

Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve

Most forgetting happens fast, then slows down.

Interference theory

Old info blocks new (proactive) or new info blocks old (retroactive).

Decay theory

Memories fade away if not used.

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (TOT)

Knowing a word but not being able to say it.

Amnesia

Memory loss.

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to form new memories.

Retrograde amnesia

Inability to remember old memories.

Marigold Linton, Ph.D.

A Native American psychologist who studied long-term memory.

Cognition

The process of thinking, learning, and understanding.

Artificial intelligence (AI)

Machines acting like humans through thinking and problem-solving.

Thinking

Using your brain to process information and solve problems.

Concepts

Categories for grouping similar things.

Prototype model

Best example of a concept, like a robin for birds.

Problem solving

Finding solutions.

Reasoning

Thinking through steps.

Decision making

Choosing between options.

Subgoals

Small steps to solve a bigger problem.

Algorithms

Step-by-step methods that always work.

Heuristics

Quick guesses that work most of the time but not always.

Functional fixedness

Seeing only one use for something.

Inductive reasoning

Making guesses from clues.

Deductive reasoning

Using rules to reach a conclusion.

Loss aversion

Disliking losses more than liking gains.

Confirmation bias

Only seeing info that supports existing beliefs.

Hindsight bias

Believing you knew an outcome all along.

Availability heuristic

Judging based on easily recalled information.

Base rate neglect

Ignoring general statistical information.

Representativeness heuristic

Judging based on stereotypes.

Critical thinking

Clear and deep thinking, asking questions.

Mindfulness

Being aware and focused on the present.

Creative thinking

Generating new ideas.

Divergent thinking

Many possible ideas.

Convergent thinking

One correct answer.

Intelligence

Ability to learn and solve problems.

Validity

A test measures what it should.

Reliability

Consistent results from a test.

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

A number indicating intelligence level.

Normal distribution

Bell-shaped curve of scores.

Culture-fair tests

Tests fair to all cultures.

Giftedness

High ability, typically an IQ of 130 or more.

Intellectual disability

Limited mental ability, often with an IQ below 70.

Triarchic theory of intelligence

Three kinds: analytical, creative, practical.

Language

System of words and rules for communication.

Syntax

Rules of grammar.

Semantics

Meaning of words and sentences.

Biological influences on language

Learning language is innate.

Noam Chomsky’s theory

We are born ready to learn language.

Environmental influences on language

Language is learned through social interactions.

Herman George Canady, Ph.D.

Studied racial effects on test performance.

Development

How people grow and change over time.

Cross-sectional designs

Comparing different age groups at one time.

Longitudinal studies

Following the same people over time.

Nature

Genetic factors we're born with.

Nurture

Environmental influences and experiences.

Resilience

Ability to bounce back from challenges.

Physical development

Changes in body over time.

Prenatal development

Development before birth.

Three stages of prenatal development

Germinal, embryonic, and fetal.

Teratogens

Harmful agents during pregnancy.

Cognitive development

Changes in thinking and learning over time.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

Assimilation

Using old ideas for new things.