Module 3: Chapter 3 and Chapter 4 Reading Questions

Vocabulary based on lecture notes covering logic, argumentation, cognitive biases, and moral theories from Chapters 3 and 4.

Valid deductive argument

An argument where the statements ($premises$ and $conclusion$) may be true or false, but if the $premises$ are true, the $conclusion$ must be true; validity has nothing to do with whether the statements are actually true.

Cogent argument

A strong argument with true $premises$ where the conclusion is considered always true because the argument provides good reasons for believing it.

Sound argument

A valid argument that possesses true $premises$.

Modus ponens

A valid argument form represented as: If $p$, then $q$. $p$. Therefore, $q$.

Valid chain argument form

An argument form structured as: If $p$, then $q$. If $q$, then $r$. Therefore, if $p$, then $r$.

Counterexample method

A method used to test an argument by looking for a case where the $premises$ are true but the $conclusion$ is false; if such a case exists, the argument is invalid.

Moral argument components

An argument that must include at least one moral $premise$ and at least one nonmoral (factual) $premise$.

Evaluating moral premises

The method of applying moral theories and principles to determine whether the moral $premise$ is justified.

Locating implied premises

The process of looking for any missing statement that is necessary for the $conclusion$ to logically follow from the stated $premises$.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to look for or accept evidence that supports existing beliefs while ignoring evidence that challenges them, which can make false or dubious beliefs seem reasonable.

Availability error

Judging something based on the examples that come to mind most easily rather than all the relevant evidence.

Motivated reasoning

Interpreting evidence specifically to support what we already want to believe, often resulting in the dismissal or ignoring of contradictory evidence.

Dunning-Kruger effect

A cognitive bias where people with limited knowledge overestimate their understanding or abilities.

Guy P. Harrison's advice

Advice for avoiding the Dunning-Kruger effect by staying humble, recognizing knowledge limits, and remaining willing to learn from experts and new evidence.

Straw man fallacy

An informal fallacy that occurs when someone misrepresents another person’s argument by exaggerating or twisting it instead of responding to what was actually said.

Moral theory

A set of general principles used to explain and evaluate moral judgments; it is not the final authority and can be evaluated or revised based on evidence and reasoning.

Moral code

A set of specific rules or beliefs that a person or group actually follows.

Considered moral judgment

A moral belief formed carefully under conditions where a person is thinking clearly, calmly, and without bias or pressure.

Consequentialist theories

One of the two main categories of moral theories, which includes utilitarianism and ethical egoism.

Utilitarianism

A moral theory stating that an action is right if it produces the greatest overall happiness for everyone affected.

Ethical egoism

A moral theory stating that an action is right if it produces the greatest good for the individual performing it.

Kant’s moral theory

A theory where an action is right if it is done out of duty and follows a moral rule that can be consistently applied to everyone, regardless of personal desires.

Consistency with considered moral judgments

The first moral criterion of adequacy ($1$) stating a good theory should match well-thought-out moral beliefs and not contradict strong judgments like the wrongness of torturing innocent people.

Consistency with moral experience and common sense

The second moral criterion of adequacy ($2$) stating a theory should make sense of real-life situations and align with everyday understanding of morality.

Explanatory power

The third moral criterion of adequacy ($3$), also known as scope and simplicity, which requires a strong theory to explain a wide range of moral situations clearly and simply.