​​Introduction to Sociology and Key Concepts

Sociology

Study of society, human behavior, and social institutions.

Sociological imagination

Connects personal troubles to larger social issues.

Industrial Revolution

Sparked the birth of sociology due to massive social change.

Auguste Comte

Father of sociology.

Emile Durkheim

Social facts, suicide study.

Karl Marx

Class conflict.

Max Weber

Verstehen (understanding), bureaucracy.

Functionalism

Society = a system of parts.

Conflict

Power, inequality.

Symbolic Interactionism

Meaning through interaction.

Manifest Functions

Intended functions (e.g., education teaches skills).

Latent Functions

Unintended functions (e.g., education = daycare).

Steps of Research

Define problem, Review literature, Form hypothesis, Choose method, Collect data, Analyze, Share results.

Independent Variable

Causes change.

Dependent Variable

Is affected.

Research Methods

Survey, Interview, Observation, Experiment, Secondary analysis.

Sample

A subset of the population used in research.

Validity

Accuracy.

Reliability

Consistency.

Culture

Shared beliefs, values, and practices.

Material Culture

Objects (phones, clothing).

Non-material Culture

Ideas (values, language).

Norms

Rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members.

Folkways

Casual norms (e.g., dress).

Mores

Strong norms (e.g., cheating).

Laws

Formalized norms.

Sanctions

Rewards or punishments for norms.

Cultural lag

Tech changes faster than culture.

Cultural relativism

Judging a culture by its own standards.

Ethnocentrism

Belief your culture is superior.

Culture shock

Discomfort in new culture.

Subculture

A group within a culture.

Counterculture

Opposes dominant culture.

Cultural universals

Things all societies have (e.g., language).

Socialization

Process of learning norms/values.

Goffman's "Total Institution"

Places that control all aspects of life (prison, military).

Harlow's monkeys

Showed importance of love and contact.

Freud's Id

Instinct.

Freud's Ego

Reality.

Freud's Superego

Morals.

Piaget

Cognitive development (sensorimotor to formal operational).

Cooley's "Looking-glass self"

We see ourselves as others see us.

Mead's

"I" and "Me" develop through role-taking.

Types of Socialization

Primary: Family, Secondary: Peers, school, Anticipatory: Preparing for roles, Resocialization: New norms/values.

Agents of Socialization

Family, peers, media, school.

Sex

biological

Gender

social/cultural

Gender role

Expected behaviors

Gender identity

Personal sense

Sexualization

Turning people into sexual objects (common in ads)

Aggregates

Same place, no interaction

Categories

Shared trait, no interaction

Groups

Regular interaction

Goffman (Dramaturgy)

Life is like acting - we manage impressions

Verbal/Non-verbal

Tone, gestures, body language

Role strain

One status, conflicting roles

Role conflict

Two statuses, roles clash

Primary Groups

Close (family)

Secondary Groups

Formal (coworkers)

Leadership Styles

Authoritarian, Democratic, Laissez-faire

Conformity Studies

Asch: Peer pressure, Milgram: Obedience to authority

Formal Organization

Large, structured group

Bureaucracy (Weber)

Clear rules, Hierarchy, Impersonal

Criticisms of Bureaucracy

Slow, rigid

Deviance

Violation of norms

Crime

Lawbreaking

Criminology

Study of crime

Functions of deviance

Clarifies norms, Unites people, Encourages change

Social Control

External: Laws, police; Internal: Conscience

Sanctions

Positive: Reward; Negative: Punishment; Formal: School suspension; Informal: Dirty look

Theories of Deviance

Lombroso: "Born criminal" (discredited), Durkheim's Anomie: Normlessness, Merton's Strain Theory: Gap between goals & means, Social Bond: Weak bonds = deviance, Differential Association: Learned behavior

Labeling Theory

Primary deviance: First offense; Secondary: Accepts label; Tertiary: Redefines deviance

Juvenile Delinquency

Crimes by minors

Neutralization Techniques

Denial, blame others, appeal to loyalty

UCR

Police-reported crimes

NCVS

Victim survey

Crime Classifications

Violent, Property, White-collar, Victimless

Felony vs. Misdemeanor

Severity of punishment

Furman v. Georgia

Halted death penalty temporarily

Stratification

Layering of society

Life chances

Access to resources

Closed Systems

Born into (e.g., caste)

Open Systems

Movement possible (e.g., U.S.)

Social Mobility

Upward, Downward, Horizontal

Marx

Bourgeoisie (owners) vs. Proletariat (workers)

Weber's Multidimensional Approach

Class, Status, Power

U.S. Class Structure (Weberian Model)

Based on income, education, occupation

Income Inequality

Uneven income → food insecurity

Poverty

Absolute: Life-threatening; Relative: Compared to others

Poverty Line

Based on income and family size

Trends in Poverty

Higher rates: Women, children, minorities, elderly

Quick Tips for the Exam

Remember 'FCS': Functionalism, Conflict, Symbolic Interactionism; Use 'MILD' for research steps: Measure, Investigate, Learn, Distribute; Memorize the founders like "C-D-M-W": Comte, Durkheim, Marx, Weber; Apply theories to real life: Think about deviance (breaking a rule), culture shock (traveling abroad), role conflict (student & employee).