Gen Psych Exam #1

Exam date: Friday September 29, 2023

psychology

the scientific study of thought, behavior, and emotion

hindsight bias

overestimation of the ability to have predicted an outcome

scientific method

tests ideas with the use of data- evidence (empiricism)

1. formulate the research question

2. formulate the hypothesis

3. design the study to test the hypothesis

4. perform the study (test the hypothesis)

5. interpret the data (draw conclusions)

6. communicate the findings

hypothesis

testable prediction

operational definition

statement about the procedures the researcher used to measure a variable

case study

in depth analysis of one subject (or more)

advantages and disadvantages of a case study

advantages: in depth knowledge and insights, understanding the cause and effect relationship between different variables

disadvantages: cannot be generalized to all subjects or cases, may be biased by the researcher, participants, or sources

observational method

Describe and measure people and/or animals' behavior systematically (observe behavior of parents dropping off kids at day care)

advantages and disadvantages of the observational method

advantages: easiest method, helpful for framing hypothesis, enhanced accuracy, global method

disadvantages: lack of clarity, subject to bias, lack of reliability, improper perception, expensive

survey method

Asking people questions about their thoughts, feelings, desires, and actions and recording their answers

advantages and disadvantages of the survey method

advantages: low cost, simplicity, ease of creation, quick feedback, high representativeness of large population

disadvantages: survey bias/response bias, survey fatigue, sampling errors, wording

wording effects

refers to the possible effects on participants caused by the order of presented words or even the choice of the words themselves. Wording effect can influence how people perceive and respond to different situations, such as gains and losses or emotional distress. Wording effect can also affect the expression of genes that regulate physical and emotional stress.

response bias

pattern of responses to questions that does not accurately reflect the content of the question

random sampling (aka random selection)

everyone in the population has an equal chance of being in the sample (being studied)

correlation (correlational method)

measures strength and direction of relationship between two variables

positive correlation

variables change in the same direction

negative correlation

variables change in opposite directions

correlation coefficients (rs)

indicator of the strength of the relationship between two variables (ranges from -1.00 to+1.00)

third variable

correlation does not indicate causation!!

instead of A causing B, B could cause A

OR there could be a third variable C that causes both A and B

experiment

researcher changes (manipulates) one variable and measures the effects of that change on another variable

the only research design in which cause and effect can be inferred

purpose: to test the effects of the IV on the DV, does the IV cause the DV?

independent variable (IV)

manipulated by the experimenter

dependent variable (DV)

outcome variable

experimental (treatment) condition (group)

receives treatment/stimulus

control condition (group)

does not receive treatment/stimulus (comparison group)

confounding variable

variable that is potentially responsible for the results, but is not the variable of interest (the IV)

random assignment

method used to place participants into experimental condition in which participants have an equal chance of being in every condition

experimental control

researcher makes sure that no factors other than the IV are changing and thus could affect the DV

placebo effect

observed improvement following an inert treatment

placebo control group

participants who receive placebo rather than actual treatment or nothing

expectancy effect (type of experimenter bias)

results when the experimenter's hypothesis(expectation) leads unintentionally to behavior toward the participants that then increases the likelihood that the participants' behavior will confirm the hypothesis (e.g., Rosenthal & Jacobson,1968)

single-blind procedure

the participants do not know if they have been assigned to the experimental or control group

double-blind procedure

neither the participants nor the researchers know who has been assigned to the experimental or control group

generalizability

the extent to which we can claim our findings inform us about a group larger than the one we studied (issue in research) (Can the results apply to other situations?)

replication

repetition of a study (important issue in research)

informed consent

permission based on researchers giving people enough information about a study to enable them to decide whether they wish to participate

debriefing

after an experiment ends, explaining to participants the study's purpose and any deceptions researchers used

biological/neuroscientific perspective

how physical systems (e.g., the brain) affect behavior, feelings, and thoughts

evolutionary perspective

how the natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes

behavioral genetic perspective

how our genes and our environment influence our behaviors

psychoanalytic/psychodynamic perspective

emphasizes the role of unconscious conflicts in determining behavior and personality, unconscious dynamics within the individual

behavioral perspective

learning via reinforcements and punishments

cognitive persepective

how people reason, remember, and interpret

social/cultural perspective

how social and cultural forces shape individuals' behavior

neurons

specialized cells that transmit neural messages to other neurons, glands, and muscles

dendrites

receives neural messages from other neurons

cell body (soma)

houses DNA

axons

thin tubes that transmit messages

glial cells (glia)

provide structure for neurons

blood-brain barrier

prevents some toxins from entering the brain, formed by some glial cells

myelin sheath

specialized cells that are wrapped around the axon to help transmit messages, formed by some glial cells

action potential

electrical signal within a neuron, electrical impulse that travels from the cell body down to the end of the axon (neural firing)

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse, level of electric charge needed to stimulate action potential

all or none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

once the electric charge of the neuron reaches a certain threshold, it fires an action potential

synapse

junction between two neurons, messages are transmitted across synapse via neurotransmitters

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that travel across synapse form sending neuron to receptors on receiving neuron

reuptake

sending neuron reabsorbs excess neurotransmitters

inhibitory signals

decrease likelihood that neuron will fire

excitatory signals

increase likelihood that neuron will fire

acetylcholine (ACh)

involved in muscle action, learning, memory

endorphins

reduce pain and promote pleasure

dopamine

involved in voluntary movement, reward, learning, memory

serotonin

involved in sleep, appetite, mood

glutamate

excitatory- learning, memory, enhancement

GABA

inhibitory- calms

epinephrine and norepinephrine

adrenaline and noradrenaline

involved in stress response/fight or flight response

agonists

increase normal activity of a neurotransmitter

antagonists

decrease activity of a neurotransmitter

motor neurons

carry signals from brain or spinal cord to muscles, skin, and glands

sensory neurons

carry messages from receptors to spinal cord and brain

central nervous system

brain and spinal cord

responds to sensory information, sends messages to muscles, glands, organs

spinal reflexes

automatic responses that occur without any brain involvement

peripheral nervous system

all of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord. allows communication between CNS and sensory systems. contains somatic and autonomic nervous systems

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

voluntary, sensory and motor pathways

autonomic nervous system

peripheral nervous system division that the glands and the muscles of the internal organs such as the heart and digestive system

contains sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

sympathetic nervous system

arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. increase heartbeat, blood pressure, and blood sugar levels. also slows down digestion and cools you with perspiration

parasympathetic nervous system

calms the body, conserving its energy. decreases heart beat, lowers blood sugar, enables you to rest and digest

endocrine system

Consists of glands that control many of the body's activities by producing hormones.

hormones

chemicals secreted by endocrine glands into bloodstream

hypothalamus

(brain structure) controls pituitary gland

pituitary gland

"master gland" endocrine glands' control center. a pea sized structure located in the brains core that is controlled by the hypothalamus and releases lots of hormones (growth hormone, oxytocin)

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

important in mood, energy level, stress response

electroencephalogram (EEG)

Detect electrical activity of neurons in particular regions of brain

Does not produce image of the brain but can be used to asses function

PET scan (positron emission tomography)

Records biochemical changes in brain as they are happening in different locations

CAT scan (computerized axial tomography)

X-ray beams sent through head

Picture of brain tissues

spinal cord

extension of the brain. handles both incoming and outgoing messages, acts as a bridge between brain and body below neck

pineal gland

secretes melatonin, regulates sleep and circadian rhythm

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

Uses magnetic field to measure activity of various brain areas

fMRI (funcitonal magnetic resonance imaging)

uses MRI to measure relative activity of various brain areas during tasks (MRI with stimulus)

brainstem

medulla and pons

medulla

controls life sustaining bodily functions (breathing, gagging)

Regulates heartbeat and breathing, essential for survival

pons

involved in sleep; connects cortex to lower brain regions (bridge between lower centers and higher centers like the cortex)

reticular formation

controls alertness, attention

thalamus

relay station

Directs incoming information from sensory receptors to cerebral cortex

All senses but smell

cerebellum

coordination of movement, Balance, muscle coordination, Memory of simple skills

Habitual, things we do all the time so we don’t need to think about it (walking, typing, playing an instrument)

As we get older, the cerebellum doesn’t work as well. This, in part, explains why the risk of falling increases as we get older

amygdala

emotions

Aggression, fear

Can be damaged due to natural causes like a stroke or other injury to the brain

hypothalamus

regulates endocrine activity

Controls hormone release

reward/pleasure

hippocampus

gateway to memory

Enables formation of new conscious memories

cerebral cortex

Higher forms of thinking

2 hemispheres of cerebral cortex- left and right

4 lobes on each hemisphere – and their locations

Frontal lobes

Parietal lobes

Occipital lobes

Temporal lobes

location of the 4 lobes

frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobe