Human Development Final Exam

when is emerging adulthood

Emerging adulthood is the period between the late teens and
late twenties; ages 18-29

what are the five characteristics of emerging adulthood that distinguish it from adolescence and young adulthood

the age of identity exploration, age of instability, age of self-focus, age of feeling in-between, and the age of possibilities

what is the age of identity exploration

Today, most identity development occurs during the late teens
and early twenties rather than adolescence

what is the age of instability

Exploration generates uncertainty and instability

what is the age of self-focus

NOT the same as self-centered!

what is the age of feeling in-between

○ When asked if they feel like adults, more 18 to 25-year-olds
answer “yes and no” than do teens or adults over the age of
25.
○ Most emerging adults have gone through the changes of
puberty, are typically no longer in high school, and many have
also moved out of their parents’ home.
○ 60% of 18 to 25-year-olds felt that in some ways they were
adults, but in some ways, they were notwha

what is the age of possibilities

○ It is a time period of optimism as more 18 to 25 year-olds feel
that they will someday get to where they want to be in life.
○ It may also be a chance to change directions, for those whose
lives up to this point have been difficult.
○ They have the chance to transform their lives and move away
from unhealthy environments.

when is established adulthood

individuals between ages 30 and 45, differ from emerging adults in a variety of ways, but especially in the areas of career development, establishment of intimate relationships, and child rearing

what happens during established adulthood

● Established adults are obtaining advanced education well into their
twenties.
● There are typically frequent job changes in their twenties before settling
into a stable long-term job in their thirties.
● In contrast to the career exploration of emerging adults, established
adults take on greater career responsibilities, gain expertise, and begin
moving up in their organizations.
● Many are delaying both marriage and having children until their thirties.

Describe emerging and established adults living arrangements

● In 2014, for the first time in more than 130 years, adults 18 to 34 were
more likely to be living in their parents’ home than they were to be
living with a spouse or partner in their own household.
● By 2014:
○ 31.6% of early adults were living with a spouse or partner in their own
household
○ 32.1% were living in the home of their parent(s)
○ 14% of early adults lived alone, were a single parent, or lived with one or
more roommates
○ 22% lived in the home of another family member (such as a grandparent,
in-law, or sibling), a non-relative, or in group quarters (e.g., college
dormitories)

what are the consequences of college drinking

● The role alcohol plays in predicting acquaintance rape on
college campuses is of particular concern.
● Alcohol use in one the strongest predictors of rape and
sexual assault on college campuses.
● Researchers have found that over 80% of sexual assaults on
college campuses involved alcohol.

define human sexuality

refers to people’s sexual interest in and attraction to others, as well as their capacity to have erotic experiences and responses

how may sexuality be experienced and expressed

in a variety of ways, including thoughts, desires, beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviors, practices, roles, and relationships

define sexual orientation

An individual’s emotional and sexual attraction to a particular gender —> it is a personal quality that inclines people to feel romantic or sexual attraction to persons of a given or gender

According to the American Psychological association, sexual orientation also refers to a person’s what

sense of identity based on those attractions, related behaviors, and membership in a community of others who share those attractions

true or false: sexual orientation is independent of gender

True: a transgender person may identify as heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, pansexual, polysexual, asexual, or any other kind of sexuality, just like a cisgender person

describe sexual orientation discrimination

● Sexual minorities regularly experience stigma, harassment,
discrimination, and violence based on their sexual orientation.
● Research has shown that gay, lesbian, and bisexual teenagers are
at a higher risk of depression and suicide due to exclusion from
social groups, rejection from peers and family, and negative media
portrayals of homosexuals.
● Discrimination can occur in the workplace, in housing, at schools,
and in numerous public settings.
● Much of this discrimination is based on stereotypes and
misinformation.

what is postformal thought

● Adults learn to base decisions on what is realistic and practical, not idealistic,
and can make adaptive choices.
● Adults are also not as influenced by what others think.
● In addition to moving toward more practical considerations, thinking in early
adulthood may also become more flexible and balanced.
● Abstract ideas that the adolescent believes in firmly may become standards
by which the adult evaluates reality.
● With experience, the adult comes to recognize that there is some right and
some wrong in each position, some good or some bad in a policy or
approach, some truth and some falsity in a particular idea

what is dialectical thought

the ability to bring together salient aspects of two opposing viewpoints or positions, and is considered one of the most advanced aspects of postformal thinking

what are some two attachment styles in adults that we talked about

attachment -related anxiety and attachment-related avoidance

describe attachment styles in adulthood

• The attachment styles that were used for children as proposed by Ainsworth’s
  research are secure, avoidant, and anxious/ambivalent.

  • Bartholomew (1990) challenged this and suggested that adult attachment
    was best described as varying along two dimensions; attachment
    related-anxiety and attachment-related avoidance.

define attachment-related anxiety

refers to the extent to which an adult worries about whether their partner really loves them. Those who score high on this dimension fear that their partner will reject or abandon them.

define attachment-related avoidance

refers to whether an adult can open up to others, and whether they trust and feel they can depend on others. Those who score high on attachment-related avoidance are uncomfortable with opening up and may fear that such dependency may limit their sense of autonomy

describe attachment styles in adults that are secure vs insecure

• secure attached adults score lower on both dimensions; they are comfortable trusting their partners and do not worry excessively about their partner’s love for them

• adults with a dismissing style score low on attachment-related anxiety, but higher on attachment-related avoidance

  • such adults dismiss the importance of relationships

  • They trust themselves, but do not trust others, thus do not share their dreams, goals, and fears with others

  • they do not depend on other people and feel uncomfortable when they have to do so

what does Erikson’s 6th stage focus on

Intimacy vs Isolation, he focuses on establishing intimate relationships or risking social isolation

explain erikson’s: intimacy vs isolation stage

• intimate relationships are more difficult if one is still struggling with identity

  • achieving a sense of identity is a lifelong process, as there are periods of identity crisis and stability

  • however, once identity is established, intimate relationships can be pursued

    • these intimate relationships include acquaintanceships and friendships, but also the more important close relationships, which are the long-term romantic relationships that we develop with another person, for instance, in a marriage

when does middle adulthood occur

45 to 65

what are some physical changes seen in middle adulthood

sarcopenia and lungs

how is sarcopenia affected in middle adulthood

• The loss of muscle mass and strength that occurs with aging.
  - It is considered a significant factor in the frailty and functional impairment that
  occurs when older.
  - The decline of growth and anabolic hormones, especially testosterone, and
  decreased physical activity have been implicated as causes of sarcopenia

how are lungs physically changed in middle adulthood

- The lungs serve two functions: to supply oxygen and remove carbon dioxide.
- Thinning of the bones with age can change the shape of the rib cage and result in a loss of lung expansion.
- Age-related changes in muscles, such as the weakening of the diaphragm, can
also reduce lung capacity.
- Both of these changes will lower oxygen levels in the blood and increase the levels of carbon dioxide.

What is the main health concern in middle adulthoods

heart disease

describe heart disease in middle adulthood

- According to the most recent National Vital Statistics Reports
in 2019 heart disease continues to be the number one cause
of death for Americans
- It claimed 23% of those who died in 2017.
- It is also the number one cause of death worldwide
- Heart disease develops slowly over time and typically appears
in midlife
- Atherosclerosis, or a buildup of fatty plaque in the arteries, is
the most common cause of cardiovascular disease.

what can diabetes cause

blindness and other eye problems

What percentage of Americans with diabetes have some degree diabetic retinopathy and what is it

between 40% and 45%, retinopathy is damage to the small blood vessels in the retina that may lead to loss of vision

what is diabetes also linked to

the primary cause of almost half (44%) of new cases of kidney failure each year

describe how menopause is with white women

White women were more likely to disclose symptoms of depression, irritability,
forgetfulness, and headaches compared to women in the other racial/ethnic groups

describe African American women and menopause

experience more night sweats

describe chinese american and japanese american women and menopause

reported fewer menopausal symptoms when compared to the women in the other groups

overall, the Chinese and Japanese group reported the fewest symptoms, while white women reported more mental health symptoms and African American women reported more physical symptoms

what is a common disfunction that occurs in males in middle adulthood

erectile dysfunction (ED)

what are the causes of ED in males

primarily due to medical conditions, including diabetes, kidney disease, alcoholism, and atherosclerosis

overall, diseases account for 70% of chronic ED, while psychological factors such as stress, depression and anxiety account for 10%-20% of all cases

describe brain functioning in middle adulthood

● Emotionally, the middle-aged brain is calmer, less neurotic,
more capable of managing emotions, and better able to
negotiate social situations.
● Older adults tend to focus more on positive information and less
on negative information than those younger.
● The older adult’s amygdala responds less to negative stimuli.
● Adults in middle adulthood make better financial decisions,
which seems to peak at age 53, and show better economic
understanding

describe a midlife crisis

The midlife transition (40-45) was a time of reevaluating previous
commitments; making dramatic changes if necessary; giving expression to
previously ignored talents or aspirations, and feeling more of a sense of
urgency about life and its meaning.
● Studies have found that the midlife crisis tends to occur among the highly
educated and was triggered by a major life event rather than out of a fear of
aging.

define stress

a pattern of physical and psychological responses in an organism after it perceives a threatening event that disturbs its homeostasis and taxes its abilities to cope with the eventde

define stressor

a stimulus that had this effect on the body (causing stess)

define general adaptation syndrome

a three-phase model of stress, which includes

1. a mobilization of physiological resources phase

2. a coping phase

3. an exhaustion phase—> when an organism fails to cope with the stress adequately and depletes its resources

true or false: stress is just major life stressor that increases the likelihood of getting sick

false: stress can also be resulted from negative events, chronically difficult situations, a biological fight or flight response, and as clinical illness, such as PTSD

describe spousal care and stress

● Caring for a disabled spouse would be a difficult experience that could
negatively affect one’s health.
● However, research indicates that there can be positive health effect
for caring for a disabled spouse.

how can spousal care and stress be put into four groups

○ Spouses with no caregiving needed (Group 1)
○ Living with a disabled spouse but not providing care (Group 2)
○ Living with a disabled spouse and providing care (Group 3)
○ Helping a disabled spouse while reporting caregiver strain, including
elevated levels of emotional and physical stress (Group 4)

what are some coping strategies

● 5,4,3,2,1
● Mindfulness
○ Formal and Informal
● Meditation
● Therapy
● Exercise
● Spirituality

what % of adults age 45 to 54 are divorced and what gender is more

27% of adults age 45 to 54 and 57% of divorced adults are women —> men are more likely to remarry than are women and two-thirds of divorces are initaiated by women

when do most divorces take place and why

Within the first 5 to 10 years of marriage, this time line reflects people’s initial attempts to salvage the relationship and after a few years of limited success, the couple may decide to end the marriage

how are divorces in early adulthood

Divorces in early adulthood were angrier and conflictual, with each partner blames the other for the failures in the marriage

how are divorces in midlife

tended to be more about having grown apart, or a cooling off of the relationship

what % of women reported concerns about the verbal and physical abusiveness of their partner

23% and drug/alcohol abuse (18%), and infidelity (17%)

what are the % of males divorcing their wives

simply falling out of love (17%), no longer shared interests or values (14%) and infidelity (14%)

adults of all ages reported what to be true about friendships

having a confidante or close friend with whom they could share personal feelings and concerns, believed these friends contributed to a sense of belonging, security, and overall wellbeing

what is poor social connectedness in adulthood associated with

a larger risk of premature mortality than cigarette smoking, obesity, and they were less likely to leave that job

define religiosity

refers to engaging with a formal religious group’s doctrines, values, traditions, and co-members defi

define spirituality

refers to an individual’s intrapsychic sense of connection with something transcendent (that which exists apart from and not limited by the material universe) and the subsequent feelings of awe, gratitude, compassion and forgiveness

what has research demonstrated about the relationship of spirituality and psychological well-being

demonstrated a strong relationship between spirituality and psychological well-being, irrespective of an individual’s religious participation, and additionally, spirituality was related to a higher quality of life for both individuals and societies

define lifespan or maximum lifespan

referred to as the greatest age reached by any member of a given population (or species) —> for humans, the lifespan is currently between 120 and 125

define life expectancy

is defined as the average number of years that members of a population (or species) live

what was the life expectancy pre-covid

life expectancy for those born in 2019 was 72, females 74.2 and males 69.8w

what does overall global life expectancy looks like

it increased 5.5 years between 2000 and 2016

• improvements in child survival and access to antiretroviral medication for the treatment of HIV were considered factors for the increase

• however, life expectancy in low-income countries was 18.1 years (63) lower than in high-income countries (81)

• in high-income countries, the majority of people who died were old, while in low-income countries almost one in three deaths were in children under 5 years of age

What is young old considered to be

the golden years of adulthood (65-74)

when compared to those older than young old what do they experience

The young-old experience has relatively good health and social engagement, knowledge and expertise, and adaptive flexibility in daily living.

• The young-old also show strong performance in attention, memory, and
  crystallized intelligence

• Those identified as young-old are more similar to those in midlife.
  ○ This group is less likely to require long-term care, to be dependent or poor, and more likely to
  be married, working for pleasure rather than income, and living independently.

• Overall, those in this age period feel a sense of happiness and emotional well-being that is better than at any other period of adulthood.

• It is also an unusual age in that people are considered both in old age and not
  in old age

What are some physical changes of aging in late adulthood

● Body shape changes naturally due to loss of lean tissue and some of
the cells of the muscles, liver, kidney, and other organs.
● Body fat goes up steadily after the age of 30.
● Skin changes by becoming thinner, less elastic, less plump and
smoother.
● Depending on sun exposure, wrinkles, dryness, and age spots may
appear.
● Bruising may occur more easily.
● The rate of hair growth slows down as hair follicles stop producing
new hairs

what are some changes in problem solving that occur in late adulthood

● Problem solving tasks that require processing non-meaningful information quickly (a kind of task that might be part of a laboratory
experiment on mental processes) declines with age.
● However, many real-life challenges facing older adults do not rely on speed of processing or making choices on one’s own.
● Older adults resolve everyday problems by relying on input from others, such as family and friends.
● They are also less likely than younger adults to delay making decisions on important matters, such as medical care

how many estimates Americans were diagnosed with alzheimer’s disease in 2016

5.4 million Americans, approximately 1 in 9 ages 65 and over

what is the number of people over the age of 65 with Alzheimer’s disease projected to be in 2050 if nothing changes

13.8 million

what is the 6th leading cause of death in the us, but the 5th leading cause in those over the age of 65

alzheimer’s disease

true or false: alzheimer’s disease is the only one that cannot be prevented, cured, or even slowed

true

current estimates indicate alzheimer’s disease to affect what

about 50% of those identified with a neurocognitive disorder

what is the Alzheimer’s timeline

1. early brain changes

2. Subtle decline in thinking

3. memory changes confusion

4. Inability to bathe, dress, or eat without help

5. Loss of ability to communicate and recognize loved ones

what is alzheimer’s disease

gradual onset with subtle personality changes and memory loss that differs from normal age-related memory problems occurring first

• confusion, difficulty with change and deterioration in language, problem-solving skills, and personality become evident next

what happens in the later stages of Alzheimer’s

• the individual loses physical coordination and is unable to complete everyday tasks, including self-care and personal hygiene

• individuals lose their ability to respond to their environment, to carry on a conversation, and eventually to control movement

On average how long do Alzheimer’s patients survive

8 years but some may live up to 20 years

how should adults in late adulthood be staying active

● Many older adults want to remain active and work toward replacing
opportunities lost with new ones.
● Those who prefer to keep themselves busy demonstrate the Activity Theory
○ Greater satisfaction with one’s life occurs with those who remain active
● More positive views on aging and greater health are noted in those who
keep active than those who isolate themselves and disengage with others.
● Community, faith-based, and volunteer organizations can all provide those in
late adulthood with opportunities to remain active and maintain social
networks

what is the activity theory

Those who prefer to keep themselves busy and therefore have greater satisfaction with one’s life occurs with those who remain active

What are the 5 types of elder abuse

1. physical abuse

2. sexual abuse

3. psychological and emotional abuse

4. financial abuse and exploitation

5. neglect and abandonment

describe physical abuse in elder abuse

physical force resulting in injury, pain, or impairment

describe sexual abuse in elder abuse

nonconsensual sexual contactdes

describe psychological and emotional abuse in elder abuse

infliction of distress through verbal or nonverbal acts such as yelling, threatening, or isolating de

describe financial abuse and exploitation in elder abuse

improper use of an elder’s finances, property, or assets de

describe neglect and abandonment in elder abuse

intentional or unintentional refusal or failure to fulfill caregiving duties to an elder

when does social death occur

this occurs when others begin to dehumanize and withdraw from someone who is terminally ill or has been diagnosed with a terminal illness

• Dehumanization includes ignoring them, talking about them if they were not present, making decisions without consulting them first, and forcing unwanted procedures.

• More recently, the concept has been used to describe the exclusion of
  people with HIV/AIDS, younger people living with terminal illness, and the preference to die at home

why do others begin to withdraw during social death?

○ Friends and family members may feel that they do not know what
to say or that they can offer no solutions to relieve suffering.
○ They withdraw to protect themselves against feeling inadequate
or from having to face the reality of death.
○ Health professionals, trained to heal, may also feel inadequate
and uncomfortable facing decline and death.

define deaths of despair and what it is linked to

a decrease in economic and social well-being, referred to as deaths of despair, which have been linked to suicides in America

what is believed to have been contributed to deaths of despair

the loss of farming and manufacturing jobs especially in rural communities where there is less access to mental health treatment

According to the CDC in 2018, other factors that contributed to suicide among
those with, and without…

mental health conditions included relationship problems, substance use disorders, financial or legal problems, and health concerns

describe developmental perceptions of death and death anxiety overall

The concept of death changes as we develop from early childhood to
late adulthood.

• Cognitive development, societal beliefs, familial responsibilities, and
  personal experiences all shape an individual’s view of death

describe developmental perceptions of death and death anxiety in infancy

• Certainly, infants do not comprehend death, however, they do react to the separation caused by death.

• Infants separated from their mothers may become sluggish and quiet, no longer smile or coo, sleep less, and develop physical symptoms such as weight loss.

what is palliative care

focuses on providing comfort and relief from physical and emotional pain to patients throughout their illness, even while being treated

what was palliative care confined to in the past

offering comfort for the dying, but now is offered whenever patients suffer from chronic illnesses, such as cancer or heart disease

what is palliative care also a part of…

hospice programs

what are the four types of hospice care

1. routine hospice care

2. continuous home care

3. impatient respite care

   1. general inpatient care

describe routine hospice care

where the patient has chosen to receive hospice care at home, and is the most common form of hospice

describe continuous home care

predominantyl nursing care, with caregiver and hospice aides supplementing this care, to manage pain and acute symptom crises for 8 to 24 hours in the home

describe inpatient respite care

it it provided by a hospital, hospice, or long-term care facility to provide temporary relief for family caregivers

describe general inpatient care

provided by a hospital, hospice, or long-term care facility when pain and acute symptom management can on be handled in other settings