The legacy of mesoamerica exam 2- Civil wars

Cross-cultural features of Revolutions

Revolutions often take place in societies were large peasantries have been negatively impacted by capitalist fortunes

Leadership by middle-class radicals—teachers, military officers, merchants and bureaucrats

 Often frustrated by social barriers to rise in status

Presence of corrupt regimes that are highly dependent on outside powers

 Lack legitimacy and easily crumble in the face of determined internal opposition

20TH CENTURY REVOLUTIONS OF MESOAMERICA

The Mexican Revolution (1910-1920)

The Guatemalan Revolution (1944-1954)

The Guatemalan Civil War (1954-1996)

The Nicaraguan Revolution (1978-1990)

The Salvadoran Civil War (1979-1992)

The Zapatista Rebellion (1994-present)

The Mexican Revolution (1910-1920)

- In 1910, conservative reformer Francisco Madero challenged dictator Porfirio Díaz to an election

-Porfirio Díaz was overthrown and was exiled in France

-Francisco Madero was elected president

- Revolutionary forces consolidated under the leadership of Pancho Villa, and Emiliano Zapata in the south, and an alliance of Venustiano Carranza and Álvaro Obregón

-More US meddling—attempted to name successors to the Diaz regime

• Created a strong anti-foreign and pro-nationalist sentiment among the revolutionaries

The Guatemalan Civil War (1954-1996)

 From 1898 to the Revolution, Guatemala was governed by a series of dictators

Granted significant concessions to the United Fruit Company

•  By the 1930s, it was the single largest landowner in Guatemala with 3.5 million acres

•  Sidenote: The United Fruit Company also funded some archaeological investigations at Maya sites, including Zaculeu

Dispossessed many Indigenous people of their communal lands and forced many to labor on foreign-owned plantations

Dictators ran the country as a police state, legally allowing murder to those suspected of breaking “vagrancy laws”

Francisco Madero

THE MEXICAN REVOLUTION

In 1910, conservative reformer Francisco Madero challenged dictator Porfirio Díaz to an election

Porfirio Díaz was overthrown and was exiled in France

Francisco Madero was elected president

Revolutionary forces consolidated under the leadership of Pancho Villa, and Emiliano Zapata in the south, and an alliance of Venustiano Carranza and Álvaro Obregón

More US meddling—attempted to name successors to the Diaz regime

•  Created a strong anti-foreign and pro-nationalist sentiment among the revolutionaries

Pancho Villa

Revolutionary forces consolidated under the leadership of Pancho Villa, and Emiliano Zapata in the south, and an alliance of Venustiano Carranza and Álvaro Obregón

in the mexican revolution

Emiliano Zapata

WHO WERE THE REVOLUTIONARIES?

Supporters of Emiliano Zapata were mostly Indigenous peasants from the south, strongly stressed Indigenous identity

•  Most of the supporters had been forced off of their land and forced to work in agricultural industries such as sugarcane

Supporters of Pancho Villa were mostly wage laborers from the north

•  Cowhands, miners, and migrant farmworkers, identified more strongly as mestizo

Immediate cause of the rebellion was Madero’s slowness in implementing reforms to land rights and labor laws supporting unions

Venustiano Carranza

Revolutionary forces consolidated under the leadership of Pancho Villa, and Emiliano Zapata in the south, and an alliance of Venustiano Carranza and Álvaro Obregón

Álvaro Obregón

Revolutionary forces consolidated under the leadership of Pancho Villa, and Emiliano Zapata in the south, and an alliance of Venustiano Carranza and Álvaro Obregón 

in the mexican revolution 

Supporters of Pancho Villa vs. Emiliano Zapata

WHO WERE THE REVOLUTIONARIES?

Supporters of Emiliano Zapata were mostly Indigenous peasants from the south, strongly stressed Indigenous identity

•  Most of the supporters had been forced off of their land and forced to work in agricultural industries such as sugarcane

Supporters of Pancho Villa were mostly wage laborers from the north

• Cowhands, miners, and migrant farmworkers, identified more strongly as mestizo

Immediate cause of the rebellion was Madero’s slowness in implementing reforms to land rights and labor laws supporting unions

The Ten Tragic Days

REGIME CHANGES

The Ten Tragic Days (Feb. 9-19, 1913)

•  Madero was overthrown by a conspiracy headed by Victoriano Huerta, the head of his own Federal Army

•  Huerta was supported by US, German and British business and political interests, as well as the Catholic church

• Fighting in the streets of Mexico City

•  Madero was removed as president, and assassinated while being transported to prison

•  Victoriano Huerta assumed the presidency, with US backing, and almost immediately began murdering his opponents

Almost immediately, Carranza declared himself in opposition to Huerta and was joined by Pancho Villa and other revolutionaries. Zapata continued his revolution in the south

By 1915, Carranza consolidated his power and became president

Victoriano Huerta

REGIME CHANGES

The Ten Tragic Days (Feb. 9-19, 1913)

•  Madero was overthrown by a conspiracy headed by Victoriano Huerta, the head of his own Federal Army

•  Huerta was supported by US, German and British business and political interests, as well as the Catholic church

• Fighting in the streets of Mexico City

•  Madero was removed as president, and assassinated while being transported to prison

•  Victoriano Huerta assumed the presidency, with US backing, and almost immediately began murdering his opponents

Almost immediately, Carranza declared himself in opposition to Huerta and was joined by Pancho Villa and other revolutionaries. Zapata continued his revolution in the south

By 1915, Carranza consolidated his power and became president

Mexican Constitution of 1917

Created a constitutional presidential republic

President as executive, Senate, and Chamber of Deputies

Established social rights

•  Slavery as illegal; all types of social discrimination are forbidden

•  Acknowledgment of Indigenous peoples and identity

Restricted the activities of the Catholic church

•  Religious institutions required to pay taxes, nationalization of church property, abolishment of religious-run schools

Established the basis for free, mandatory, secular education

Laid the foundation for land reforms

• “Non-productive” land could be confiscated to the government

• Created the “Ejido System” as a system of small, inalienable peasant holdings.

• Was meant to confiscate and redistribute large hacienda lands to peasant farmers; however, Carranza opposed this and actually returned some lands to elite owners

Empowered the labor sector

•  8-hour day, minimum wage, hygienic working conditions, payment of wages in cash, banned company stores,

Sunday as an obligatory day of rest

Foreign citizens cannot own land at the borders or coasts

Land, water and national resources are the original property of the federal government, which retains the right to transfer ownership

FOLLOWING THE CONSTITUTION

Carranza had a lot of support from women, and significantly advanced women’s rights

Despite the provisions for land reform, Carranza opposed it, and in many cases vetoed laws that would have helped peasants gain access to land, and returned confiscated estates to elites

In the next decade, most of the revolutionary leaders were assassinated, including Zapata (1919), Venustiano Carranza (1920), Pancho Villa (1923), and Álvaro Obregón (1928)

Reform in the Yucatan

In Yucatan, Carranza’s general, Salvador Alvarado, served as governor and military commander from 1915-18

Implemented many reforms that anticipated the 1917 constitution:

•  Broke up and redistributed hacienda lands to peasants

•  Established labor laws and required cash wages

•  Freed the Yucatec Maya from debt servitude

•  Established thousands of public schools

•  Protections for women, punishments for rape and abuse

•  “Vice laws” outlawed bullfighting, drinking, gambling, lotteries and raffles

After 1918, Carranza permanently recalled Alvarado to Mexico City

• Held many cabinet posts

After Carranza was assassinated, Alvarado continued in cabinet posts until he was also assassinated in 1924

Salvador Alvarado

In Yucatan, Carranza’s general, Salvador Alvarado, served as governor and military commander from 1915-18

Implemented many reforms that anticipated the 1917 constitution:

•  Broke up and redistributed hacienda lands to peasants

•  Established labor laws and required cash wages

•  Freed the Yucatec Maya from debt servitude

•  Established thousands of public schools

•  Protections for women, punishments for rape and abuse

•  “Vice laws” outlawed bullfighting, drinking, gambling, lotteries and raffles

After 1918, Carranza permanently recalled Alvarado to Mexico City

• Held many cabinet posts

After Carranza was assassinated, Alvarado continued in cabinet posts until he was also assassinated in 1924

The Legacy of the Zapatistas

The core of Emiliano Zapata’s supporters was in Morelos

Tension between urban, professional mestizos and rural Indigenous farmers

Practical but limited goals, centered on land reform

•  Moral outrage at being deprived of ancestral lands and self-sufficiency

• Wanted to restore communal property and autonomy

Guerilla warfare tactics

Later, Carranza’s army brutally killed and exiled thousands of Indigenous people and destroyed their communities

Excluded from the congress, but influenced many of the reforms in the Constitution of 1917

However, many Indigenous communities in Oaxaca and Chiapas rejected the call for rebellion, and instead joined Carranza’s army

The Ejido System

Although the Constitution of 1917 contained the blueprint for land reform, Carranza opposed it

Actual land reform was instituted in 1934 under President Lázaro Cárdenas

Under the system, landless farmers could petition the federal government for the creation of an ejido in their area, and the federal government would select local lands in consultation with local landowners

Two types of ejidos:

Individual: Given to individual families; they are not allowed to sell it, but pass their rights on to their children

Collective: Ejido members own lands collectively, and individuals are given use of specific land parcels by the collective assembly; they may continue to use their parcels as long as they do not neglect the land for more than two years

Land reforms of 1934

Although the Constitution of 1917 contained the blueprint for land reform, Carranza opposed it

Actual land reform was instituted in 1934 under President Lázaro Cárdenas 

in ejido system 

Lázaro Cárdenas

Although the Constitution of 1917 contained the blueprint for land reform, Carranza opposed it

Actual land reform was instituted in 1934 under President Lázaro Cárdenas

Individual vs. Collective Ejidos

Two types of ejidos:

Individual: Given to individual families; they are not allowed to sell it, but pass their rights on to their children

Collective: Ejido members own lands collectively, and individuals are given use of specific land parcels by the collective assembly; they may continue to use their parcels as long as they do not neglect the land for more than two years

The Guatemalan Civil War

From 1898 to the Revolution, Guatemala was governed by a series of dictators

Granted significant concessions to the United Fruit Company

•  By the 1930s, it was the single largest landowner in Guatemala with 3.5 million acres

•  Sidenote: The United Fruit Company also funded some archaeological investigations at Maya sites, including Zaculeu

Dispossessed many Indigenous people of their communal lands and forced many to labor on foreign-owned plantations

Dictators ran the country as a police state, legally allowing murder to those suspected of breaking “vagrancy laws”

Dictatorships in Guatemala, 1898-1944

From 1898 to the Revolution, Guatemala was governed by a series of dictators

Granted significant concessions to the United Fruit Company

•  By the 1930s, it was the single largest landowner in Guatemala with 3.5 million acres

•  Sidenote: The United Fruit Company also funded some archaeological investigations at Maya sites, including Zaculeu

Dispossessed many Indigenous people of their communal lands and forced many to labor on foreign-owned plantations

Dictators ran the country as a police state, legally allowing murder to those suspected of breaking “vagrancy laws”

United Fruit Company

From 1898 to the Revolution, Guatemala was governed by a series of dictators

Granted significant concessions to the United Fruit Company

•  By the 1930s, it was the single largest landowner in Guatemala with 3.5 million acres

•  Sidenote: The United Fruit Company also funded some archaeological investigations at Maya sites, including Zaculeu

Vagrancy laws

Dictators ran the country as a police state, legally allowing murder to those suspected of breaking “vagrancy laws”

guatamalan dictators 

Jorge Ubico

THE REVOLUTION

In 1944, a popular uprising overthrew dictator Jorge Ubico

•  Resigned under pressure from a pro-democracy movement, led by university students and labor organizations

Ubico appointed a three-person military junta to continue his policies, which was removed by a military coup, which then instituted an open election in October 1944

The winner was Juan José Arévalo, a philosophy professor

•  Served as president from 1944-1951

• Implemented social reforms

•      Literacy campaign

•      Largely free elections (but banned communist parties)

•      Labor code with health/safety standards, 8-hour workday, and forbade salary discrimination

The Guatemalan Revolution, 1944

THE REVOLUTION

In 1944, a popular uprising overthrew dictator Jorge Ubico

•  Resigned under pressure from a pro-democracy movement, led by university students and labor organizations

Ubico appointed a three-person military junta to continue his policies, which was removed by a military coup, which then instituted an open election in October 1944

The winner was Juan José Arévalo, a philosophy professor

•  Served as president from 1944-1951

• Implemented social reforms

•      Literacy campaign

•      Largely free elections (but banned communist parties)

•      Labor code with health/safety standards, 8-hour workday, and forbade salary discrimination

Juan José Arévalo

guatamalan revolution- winner of open election after revolution overthrew Jorge Ubico

Jacobo Árbenz

The second president after guatamalan revolution was Jacobo Árbenz, who instituted a land reform

Decree 900

DECREE 900

The second president was Jacobo Árbenz, who instituted a land reform program called Decree 900

Uncultivated portions of large land-holdings were expropriated with compensation, and redistributed to approximately 500,000 rural peasants, mostly Indigenous people

However, much of the land was expropriated from the United Fruit Company

The UFC convinced the US State Department to overthrow Árbenz on the pretext that he was a communist, and installed Carlos Castillo Armas as a dictator, causing the Guatemala Civil War

The 1952 Aborted Coup

THE 1952 ABORTED CUP

During the Cold War, the US tended to assume that any foreign leader who opposed it was a communist and a danger to the US

“Operation PBFortune”—US President Truman gave the CIA permission to try to overthrown the Guatemalan Government without informing the State Department

The CIA planned to ship weapons to the US-supported, right-wing dictator of Nicaragua on a UFC cargo ship, to try to overthrow the Guatemalan government

• Supported by the right-wing dictators of the Dominican Republic and Venezuela

However, the state department found out about it, and persuaded Truman to call it off

Operation PBFortune

THE 1952 ABORTED COUP

During the Cold War, the US tended to assume that any foreign leader who opposed it was a communist and a danger to the US

“Operation PBFortune”—US President Truman gave the CIA permission to try to overthrown the Guatemalan Government without informing the State Department

The CIA planned to ship weapons to the US-supported, right-wing dictator of Nicaragua on a UFC cargo ship, to try to overthrow the Guatemalan government

• Supported by the right-wing dictators of the Dominican Republic and Venezuela

However, the state department found out about it, and persuaded Truman to call it off

The 1954 Coup

THE 1954 COUP

In 1952, US President Eisenhower is elected

 Both his Secretary of State and his CIA director had close ties to the United Fruit Co.

In 1952, Truman had blocked foreign weapons shipments to Guatemala

•  In desperation, Árbenz tried to acquire them secretly from Czechoslovakia, a Soviet bloc country—pretext for invasion

 In 1954, the US government launched Operation PBSuccess

•  Provided weapons and training to soldiers in Nicaragua and Honduras

• Selected Carlos Castillo Armas as the leader

•  Massive propaganda campaign

•  Bombing Guatemalan towns to create terror

Operation PBSuccess

 In 1954, the US government launched Operation PBSuccess

•  Provided weapons and training to soldiers in Nicaragua and Honduras

•  Selected Carlos Castillo Armas as the leader

•  Massive propaganda campaign

•  Bombing Guatemalan towns to create terror

The CIA bombed Guatemala City, including the country’s oil reserves

Árbenz wanted to distribute weapons to local peasants and workers

The army refused and demanded Árbenz’s resignation

Castillo Armas was installed as provisional president with US support, then elected, but was the only candidate allowed to run

Immediately cancelled agrarian reforms, removed voting rights for illiterate voting rights

Preventative Penal Law Against Communism allowed for arbitrary arrest and indefinite detention of anyone accused of communism

Following the election, many peasant leaders were rounded up and executed

This triggered the Guatemala Civil War

Carlos Castillo Armas

Castillo Armas was installed as provisional president with US support, then elected, but was the only candidate allowed to run

Immediately cancelled agrarian reforms, removed voting rights for illiterate voting rights

Preventative Penal Law Against Communism allowed for arbitrary arrest and indefinite detention of anyone accused of communism

Following the election, many peasant leaders were rounded up and executed

This triggered the Guatemala Civil War

The Guatemala Civil War, 1954-1996

Castillo Armas was installed as provisional president with US support, then elected, but was the only candidate allowed to run

Immediately cancelled agrarian reforms, removed voting rights for illiterate voting rights

Preventative Penal Law Against Communism allowed for arbitrary arrest and indefinite detention of anyone accused of communism

Following the election, many peasant leaders were rounded up and executed

This triggered the Guatemala Civil War

Government military forces and right-wing militias battled leftist forces, mostly Indigenous Maya people

The government-backed militias acted as death squads, including the kidnapping, torture, and murder of victims

In the 1966 election, civilian presidency was restored under Julio Cesar Mendez Montenegro

•  Promised social justice and a government free of military influence

•  However, he had a secret agreement with the army not to interfere with the death squads

•  Authorized army to use “any means necessary”

•  US police advisors provided equipment and training to the Guatemalan army

Julio Cesar Mendez Montenegro

In the 1966 election, civilian presidency was restored under Julio Cesar Mendez Montenegro

•  Promised social justice and a government free of military influence

•  However, he had a secret agreement with the army not to interfere with the death squads

•  Authorized army to use “any means necessary”

•  US police advisors provided equipment and training to the Guatemalan army

guatamala civil war slides

Colonel Carlos Arana Osario

In the 1970 election, Colonel Carlos Arana Osario was elected

president

•  Conservative military commander elected on a campaign to restore law and order

•  Suspended all civil liberties for a year

• Gave the military total control in the field

•  In one year, there were over 700 political killings, including labor leaders, students, and political opponents

By 1977, the violence had escalated so far that US president Jimmy Carter cut off military aid and credit to Guatemala

Violence continued under the next Guatemalan president, General Fernando Romero Lucas Garcia

•  Unprecidented campaign of terror against his opponents

•  At least 50,000 people died, 200,000 fled to other countries, and many more were internally displaced within the country

in guatamalan civil war 

General Fernando Romero Lucas Garcia

Violence continued under the next Guatemalan president, General Fernando Romero Lucas Garcia

•  Unprecidented campaign of terror against his opponents

•  At least 50,000 people died, 200,000 fled to other countries, and many more were internally displaced within the country

in guatamalan civil war 

General Efrain Rios Montt

CIVIL WAR IN THE 1980S

In 1982, General Efrain Rios Montt seized power in a coup

• Increased horrific attacks on Indigenous Guatemalans

CIVIL WAR IN THE 1980S (guatamala)

In 1982, General Efrain Rios Montt seized power in a coup

• Increased horrific attacks on Indigenous Guatemalans

In 1983, US President Ronald Regan overturned the arms embargo

•  Authorized the sale of US weapons and arms to the Guatemalan government

In 1984, another coup was led by General Mejia Victores

• Three years later, Guatemala held elections for the first time in 16 years

•  Vinicio Cerezo was elected

•  Offered amnesty to members of the army for any prior human rights violations

•  His successor as president, Jorge Serrano Elias, tried to prosecute human rights violations

•  He was forced to resign and exile in Panama under accusations of corruption and appropriation of state funds

1996 Guatemalan Peace Accords

In 1994, peace talks began between the government and leftist army began

In 1996, the two sides signed peace accords

Human rights activists and Indigenous communities continued to be threatened and abused

Most of the abuses were not investigated or prosecuted

1999 UN Commission

1999 UN Commission conducted an investigation and released a

report

 Guatemalan army was behind 93% of human rights atrocities

 200,000 deaths

 83% of the identified victims were K’iche’ Maya from the western highlands

Number of killed and displaced civilians in the Guatemalan Civil War

1999 UN Commission conducted an investigation and released a report

 Guatemalan army was behind 93% of human rights atrocities

 200,000 deaths

 83% of the identified victims were K’iche’ Maya from the western highlands

In 2005, the records of the Guatemala National Police archive were declassified, beginning efforts to use the information to find out what happened to kidnapped and “disappeared” victims

In 2007, Rios Montt was elected to Congress and gained immunity from prosecution, but once his term ended in 2012, he was formally indicted for genocide and crimes against humanity

General Efrain Rios Montt in congress

In 2007, Rios Montt was elected to Congress and gained immunity from prosecution, but once his term ended in 2012, he was formally indicted for genocide and crimes against humanity

The Nicaraguan Civil War

As in other Central American countries, the US made several military occupations in Nicaragua during the 1890s and 1900s

 In 1909, the US supported conservative forces rebelling against Liberal reformer, President José Santos Zelaya

 Claimed to be protecting the lives and property of US citizens

 Civil war between liberals and conservatives, 1926-27

 In 1937, the head of the National Guard, Anastasio Somoza Garcia, took power. His family ruled as a dynasty until 1979

•  Used the National Guard to control the country through terror and extortion

Anastasio Somoza Garcia

 In 1937, the head of the National Guard, Anastasio Somoza Garcia, took power. His family ruled as a dynasty until 1979

•  Used the National Guard to control the country through terror and extortion

IN nicaraguan civil war 

The rise of the Sandanistas

In the 1950s and 60s, an armed rebellion formed in opposition to the Somozas

•  Frente Sandinista de Liberacion Nacional (FSLN), called the Sandinistas

•  Inspired by the Cuban Revolution, had money and support from Cuba and the USSR

• Operated from Costa Rica

•  The US supported the Somozas against the Sandanistas

In December 1972, an earthquake in Managua killed over 10,000 people and left 500,000 homeless

•  In anger, many young Nicaraguans joined the Sandanistas

•  Somoza declared martial law, including the destruction of entire villages

•  “Bomb everything that moves until it stops moving”

•  A nationwide strike protested the Somoza regime and demanded an end to the dictatorship

Frente Sandinista de Liberacion Nacional (FSLN), called the Sandinistas

In the 1950s and 60s, an armed rebellion formed in opposition to the Somozas

 Frente Sandinista de Liberacion Nacional (FSLN), called the Sandinistas

 Inspired by the Cuban Revolution, had money and support from Cuba and the USSR

 Operated from Costa Rica

 The US supported the Somozas against the Sandanistas

In the rise of the sandanistas 

Earthquake in Managua, 1972

In December 1972, an earthquake in Managua killed over 10,000 people and left 500,000 homeless

 In anger, many young Nicaraguans joined the Sandanistas

 Somoza declared martial law, including the destruction of entire villages

 “Bomb everything that moves until it stops moving”

 A nationwide strike protested the Somoza regime and demanded an end to the dictatorship

In the rise of the sandanistas

THE SANDANISTAS TAKE POWER

By the late 1970s, US media coverage of the conflict was increasingly unfavorable

 Execution of ABC reporter Bill Stewart by the National Guard was broadcast on US television

 Led US President Jimmy Carter to refuse Somoza further US military aid

In 1979, Somoza fled to Paraguay and the FSLN took over the government, led by Daniel Ortega

 US President Carter initially gave aid to the FSLN

 However, when US President Ronald Reagan took office in 1980, he cut off aid completely, because the FSLN was sending support to the rebels in El Salvador

 The FSLN continued to align politically with the Soviet bloc, including the acquisition of significant military equipment

US President Jimmy Carter

By the late 1970s, US media coverage of the conflict was increasingly unfavorable

 Execution of ABC reporter Bill Stewart by the National Guard was broadcast on US television

 Led US President Jimmy Carter to refuse Somoza further US military aid

In 1979, Somoza fled to Paraguay and the FSLN took over the government, led by Daniel Ortega

 US President Carter initially gave aid to the FSLN

 However, when US President Ronald Reagan took office in 1980, he cut off aid completely, because the FSLN was sending support to the rebels in El Salvador

US President Ronald Regan

In 1979, Somoza fled to Paraguay and the FSLN took over the government, led by Daniel Ortega

 US President Carter initially gave aid to the FSLN

 However, when US President Ronald Reagan took office in 1980, he cut off aid completely, because the FSLN was sending support to the rebels in El Salvador

 The FSLN continued to align politically with the Soviet bloc, including the acquisition of significant military equipment

Daniel Ortega

In 1979, Somoza fled to Paraguay and the FSLN took over the government, led by Daniel Ortega

 US President Carter initially gave aid to the FSLN

 However, when US President Ronald Reagan took office in 1980, he cut off aid completely, because the FSLN was sending support to the rebels in El Salvador

 The FSLN continued to align politically with the Soviet bloc, including the acquisition of significant military equipment

The USA funding of the Contras

To try to overthrow the Sandanistas, the US trained and financed the Contras, a counter-revolutionary group

 Based and trained in Honduras and Costa Rica by members of the CIA

 Mostly former members of Somoza’s National Guard who had fled across the border

 Systematic campaign of terrorism against rural villagers

 Disruption of Sandanista government’s social reform projects

•  Destruction of health centers, schools and cooperatives

In 1982, the US Congress passed a bill to prohibit further aid to the Contras

• Reagan continued to fund them illegally through secret arms sales to Iran—Iran-Contra Scandal of 1986-87

Reagan also imposed a full trade embargo on Nicaragua

In 1986, the International Court of Justice ruled against the US for aggression against Nicaragua

• Mostly ignored by the US, refused to pay $12 billion fine in reparations

By 1988, the two sides declared a cease-fire and held elections in 1990

Iran-Contra Scandal of 1986-87

In 1982, the US Congress passed a bill to prohibit further aid to the Contras

• Reagan continued to fund them illegally through secret arms sales to Iran—Iran-Contra Scandal of 1986-87

Reagan also imposed a full trade embargo on Nicaragua

In 1986, the International Court of Justice ruled against the US for aggression against Nicaragua

• Mostly ignored by the US, refused to pay $12 billion fine in reparations

By 1988, the two sides declared a cease-fire and held elections in 1990

Cease-fire of 1988

By 1988, the two sides declared a cease-fire and held elections in 1990

The Salvadoran Civil War

THE SALVADORAN CIVIL WAR (1979-1992)

In the 1930s, there was a rebellion of peasant coffee plantation workers, including many

Indigenous people, against the government

•  Resulted in a massacre called “La Matanza” where the government killed ~30,000 people

• Resulted in a series of military dictatorships that protected elite landholders

•  Social inequality and unrest was exacerbated through conflict with Honduras and the 1973 oil crisis

In 1977, President Carlos Humberto Romeo was elected, as the military-backed candidate

•  Elections were fraudulent—peasants were threatened with machetes if they did not vote for him

•  Led to massive protests, met by state repression and military opening fire on demonstrators.

•  Romero declared a state of siege, suspended civil liberties, and funded paramilitary death squads to suppress opposition

the salvadoran civil war after 1979 

In October 15, 1979, a military coup deposed President Carlos Humberto Romero

 Fought between the government of El Salvador and the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN), a coalition or "umbrella organization" of left-wing groups backed by the Cuban regime of Fidel Castro as well as the Soviet Union.

 The US government, due to Cold War politics, supported the Salvadoran government

 Government committed violence towards any citizens who supported the FMLN or evenquestioned official policy, through paramilitary death squads and the military (kidnapping, torture, rape, murder)

 Military tactics involved massacres of entire villages or neighborhoods

•  El Mozote massacre in 1981 killed over 800 villagers and peasants from surrounding rural areas.

 Targets included rural civilians and union leaders, clergy, students, and especially Maya people in the northwest departments, which generally supported the FMLN (especially Chalatenango).

 Negotiations eventually resulted in the Chapultepec Peace Accords in 1992, signed in Mexico City

 At least 70,000 people killed, 8,000 disappeared, 550,000 were internally displaced, 500,000 became refugees in other countries

La Matanza

In the 1930s, there was a rebellion of peasant coffee plantation workers, including many Indigenous people, against the government

•  Resulted in a massacre called “La Matanza” where the government killed ~30,000 people

• Resulted in a series of military dictatorships that protected elite landholders

•  Social inequality and unrest was exacerbated through conflict with Honduras and the 1973 oil crisis

1977 elections

In 1977, President Carlos Humberto Romeo was elected, as the military-backed candidate

•  Elections were fraudulent—peasants were threatened with machetes if they did not vote for him

•  Led to massive protests, met by state repression and military opening fire on demonstrators.

•  Romero declared a state of siege, suspended civil liberties, and funded paramilitary death squads to suppress opposition

Carlos Humberto Romeo

In 1977, President Carlos Humberto Romeo was elected, as the military-backed candidate

•  Elections were fraudulent—peasants were threatened with machetes if they did not vote for him

•  Led to massive protests, met by state repression and military opening fire on demonstrators.

•  Romero declared a state of siege, suspended civil liberties, and funded paramilitary death squads to suppress opposition

Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN)

In October 15, 1979, a military coup deposed President Carlos Humberto Romero

 Fought between the government of El Salvador and the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN), a coalition or "umbrella organization" of left-wing groups backed by the Cuban regime of Fidel Castro as well as the Soviet Union.

 The US government, due to Cold War politics, supported the Salvadoran government

 Government committed violence towards any citizens who supported the FMLN or even questioned official policy, through paramilitary death squads and the military (kidnapping, torture, rape, murder)

 Military tactics involved massacres of entire villages or neighborhoods

•  El Mozote massacre in 1981 killed over 800 villagers and peasants from surrounding rural areas.

 Targets included rural civilians and union leaders, clergy, students, and especially Maya people in the northwest departments, which generally supported the FMLN (especially Chalatenango).

 Negotiations eventually resulted in the Chapultepec Peace Accords in 1992, signed in Mexico City

 At least 70,000 people killed, 8,000 disappeared, 550,000 were internally displaced, 500,000 became refugees in other countries

Government death squads

Government committed violence towards any citizens who supported the FMLN or even questioned official policy, through paramilitary death squads and the military (kidnapping,torture, rape, murder) 

in salvadoran civil war 

El Mozote Massacre

 Military tactics involved massacres of entire villages or neighborhoods

•  El Mozote massacre in 1981 killed over 800 villagers and peasants from surrounding rural areas.

in salvadoran civil war 

Chapultepec Peace Accords, 1992

 Negotiations eventually resulted in the Chapultepec Peace Accords in 1992, signed in Mexico City

In salvadoran civil war 

Number of killed and displaced civilians in the Salvadoran Civil War

 At least 70,000 people killed, 8,000 disappeared, 550,000 were internally displaced, 500,000 became refugees in other countries