A & P FINAL

2 subdivisions of PNS

Somatic and autonomic

2 subdivisions of autonomic nervous system

Sympathetic (fight/flight) and parasympathetic (feed/breed)

CN I

Olfactory (Sensory)

CN II

Optic (Sensory)

CN III

Oculomotor (Motor) Pupil constriction/Lens shape

CN IV

Trochlear (Motor) Eye movement

CN V

Trigeminal (Mixed) Face/mouth/chewing

CN VI

Abducens (Motor) Eye movement

CN VII

Facial (Mixed) Taste/Salivary/Facial expression

CN VIII

Vestibulocochlear (Sensory) Hearing/Equilibrium

CN IX

Glossopharyngeal (Mixed) Oral cavity/swallowing/blood vessels

CN X

Vagus (Mixed) Organs/muscles/glands

CN XI

Accessory (Motor) Neck/Shoulder/Oral muscles

CN XII

Hypoglossal (Motor) Tongue

What is the Limbic system and why is it important?

It is the “emotional brain” and connects the conscious and subconscious brain while also helping with short term memory

What links the limbic areas?

Fornix

What areas are related to the Limbic system?

Medial cerebral hemisphere (cingulate gyrus,
amygdala, hippocampus & other structures), hypothalamus, and anterior nucleus of the thalamus

What is involved with emotional states and behavior?

Amygdala and cingulate gyrus

What is the role of mushroom bodies?

Early hippocampus, seen in invertebrates, aids in memory. They are more pronounced in social insect or migratory species

Learning

The acquisition of abilities or knowledge as a result of experience or instruction

Memory

Storage and retrieval of information

Declarative memory

ST and LG things you can name

Procedural memory

Memory of skills

Motor memory

Memory of physical motor skills

Emotional memory

Memory of how we feel

Habituation

Decreased responsiveness to repetitive presentation of an indifferent stimulus

Sensitization

Increased responsiveness to mild stimuli following a strong or noxious stimulus

Long-term potentiation

Prolonged increase in the strength of existing

synaptic connections following repetitive stimulation

Immediate Early Gene

Govern synthesis of the proteins that encode long-term memory

Where does the sympathetic system originate?

Thoracic and lumbar spinal cord regions

Where does the parasympathetic system originate?

Brain and sacral spinal cord regions, and has ganglia closer to target organs

Hormones involved with the parasympathetic system?

Insulin and acetylcholine

Hormone

Chemical produced by the body which acts on distant targets and usually travels via the blood/hemolymph

Pheromones

Chemical signals that carry information from one individual to another member of the same species

Parasympathetic receptors

Muscarinic

Sympathetic receptors

Beta-adrenergic

Exocrine glands

Secret onto free surface

Endocrine glands

Secret into blood

Allelochemicals

Signals that travel from one animal to some member of a different species

Examples of exocrine glands?

Tear ducts, Bile, Sweat/oil glands, salivatory glands, and lactation glands

Describe peptide hormones

Hydrophilic, cell surface receptors, 2nd messenger pathways

Describe steroid hormones

Hydrophobic, synthesized on demand, bound to carrier proteins, receptors located in nucleus/cytoplasm, alters gene transcription

Describe catecholamines

Hydrophilic, Cell surface receptors, 2nd messenger pathways

Describe Thyroid hormones

Hydrophobic, nuclear receptors, carrier protein transport, alters gene transcription

Steroid hormones are derived from

Cholesterol

Aromatase converts

Androgens into estrogens

3 classes of steroid hormones

1. Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)

2. Glucocorticoids

3. Reproductive hormones

Amine hormones are derived from

Tyrosine and Tryptophan

Examples of Amine hormones

Melatonin, Acetylcholine, Dopamine

Permissiveness

Allows for more receptors to receive responses

Example of permissiveness

Thyroid Hormone - it enhances other hormone effects rather than directly doing something itself

Syngergism

When 2+ hormones interact to have a greater combined effect than if acting independently (example glucagon + epinephrine + cortisol)

Antagonist

Opposing effects on body (insulin and glucagon)

Pineal

Melatonin targets brain, eyes, gut

Hypothalamus

Releasing hormones (act on pituitary) “control center”

Posterior pituitary

Oxytocin and ADH (Vasopressin) acts on muscle contraction in uterus and mammary glands and kidneys and blood vessels (vasoconstriction)

Anterior pituitary

Prolactin (Lactation), FSH, LH, ACTH (adrenal cortex), endorphins, TSH (thyroid), GH (liver + adipose tissue)

Liver

Releases IGF-1 (Insulin like growth factor)

What is a distinctive trait of thyroid histology

Follicles containing thyroglobin and glycoprotein. Colloid pools are the precursor to thyroid hormone.

What are the cells outside the colloid pools in the thyroid?

Parafollicular cells!

What hormones does the thyroid produce

T4 and T3, which target tissues all around the body

Parathyroid releases

PTH, which targets kidney and bone forming cells (osteoblasts) and bone destroying cells (CLASTS)

Short term adrenal stress hormones

Nor/epinephrine

Long term adrenal stress hormones

Steroids/glucocorticoids

Adrenal cortex

Synergistic (aldosterone!), and glucocorticoids, and mineralocorticoids

Adrenal medulla

Nor/epinephrine

Diabetes mellitus (DM)

Cells can’t take up glucose

Diabetes Type I

Insulin not produced

Diabetes Type II

Insulin is produced but the receptors aren’t being made

How much of the pancreas is exocrine?

98%

Insulin acts as a

PEPTIDE

What hormones does the Thymus produce

T-cells

Zones of the adrenal cortex

Zona glomerulosa (outermost) - Mineralocorticoids, primarily aldosterone

Zona fasciculata (middle) - glucocorticoids, primarily cortisol

Zona reticularis (innermost) - androgens

Trophic hormones

Means it acts on/target/stimulates another endocrine gland

What do parafollicular cells release?

Calcitonin (stops blood breakdown to lower blood calcium levels)

HPT axis

TRH from hypothalamus - TSH from pituitary - T3 and T4 from thyroid

Calcitonin is an antagonist to

PTH

What does aldosterone do

• Maintains Na+ balance by reducing excretion of sodium from the body

• Stimulates reabsorption of Na+ by the kidneys

• = Increases osmolarity of the blood

Too high blood sugar level

Beta cells of pancreas release insulin, increased glucose transported into target cells, increased conversion of glucose into glycogen, increased rate of ATP production and utilization

Falling blood sugar levels

Alpha cells secret glucagon, increased breakdown of fat, increased glycogen converted to glucose

Melatonin role in puberty

Inhibits puberty in humans. Levels drop 75% at puberty

Kisspeptin neurons

Serve as the main conveyor of metabolic cues to control the reproductive axis, thus determining the timing of puberty onset and reproductive success

2 hormones involved in social bonding

Oxytocin and Vasopressin (prairie voles)

Pinealocytes convert

Tryptophan to serotonin (in daylight)

and serotonin to melatonin without light

SRY factor

Testis-determining factor (males)

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs)

Natural or human-made chemicals that may

mimic, block, or interfere with the body's hormones

Examples of EDC

Atrazine, DDT, PCBs

Turner syndrome (XO)

Infertility, delayed puberty

Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY)

Low testosterone, reduced morphological features, low sperm production

What are ways of determining sex outside of mammals?

Environmental Sex Determination (higher temps = more males), and Hermaphrodites (clownfish)

What sex differentiation do most mammals have?

Genotypic Sex Determination

Haplodiploidy

Bees (males are haploid) females are diploid

What are the genes involved with female development?

FOXL2

What are the genes involved with male reproduction?

SRY, SOX9, DHT hormone

2 stages a human zygote goes through before implantation

Morula and Blastocyst

What hormone is used in pregnancy tests?

Human chorionic gonadotrophin

CSF is reabsorbed through

Arachnoid granulations

Cerebellum

Balance, movement, coordination, speech

Medulla oblongata

Part of brainstem involved with involuntary heartrate, breathing, blood pressure etc.

Pons

Part of brainstem involved with linking brainstem to thalamus. Also sensory and motor control