Lifespan Development: Issues, Methods, Prenatal Development, and the Neonate

A set of key vocabulary terms and definitions covering Chapter 1 (Issues, Methods & Perspectives) and Chapter 2 (Prenatal Development, Birth & the Neonate).

Psychodynamic Perspective

A developmental perspective that focuses on the unconscious mind, defense mechanisms, childhood relationships and experiences, and how early relationship patterns influence later relationships.

Behavioral Perspective

A developmental perspective that focuses on observable, measurable behavior and how behavior is learned through environmental stimuli, rewards, and punishments.

Classical Conditioning

Learning in which a stimulus in the environment becomes associated with a response.

Operant Conditioning

Learning in which consequences, such as rewards or punishments, affect whether a behavior is repeated.

Social-Learning/Social-Cognitive Perspective

The perspective that people learn behaviors by observing and imitating others and that cognitive processes also influence learning.

Cognitive Perspective

The perspective that focuses on thinking, memory, perception, problem solving, language, and how these mental processes develop.

Biological Perspective

The perspective that explains development through biological processes such as genetics, maturation, the brain, neurotransmitters, hormones, and evolution.

Contextual Perspective

The perspective that emphasizes how development is influenced by the social, cultural, historical, and environmental contexts surrounding a person.

Humanistic Perspective

The perspective emphasizing free will, personal growth, individual potential, self-concept, and the drive toward self-actualization.

Nature

The influence of genetics and biology on development.

Nurture

The influence of the environment and experiences on development.

Critical Period

A narrow, rigid window of development during which certain experiences must occur, or development can be permanently affected.

Sensitive Period

A longer, more flexible period when the brain is especially receptive to certain experiences and learning is easier, but development can still occur afterward.

Continuous Development

Gradual, quantitative change over time, such as vocabulary growth or skill building.

Discontinuous Development

Development occurring through distinct stages involving qualitative changes.

Defense Mechanisms

Ways the ego protects a person from unbearable realities, impulses, distress, and anxiety.

Denial

Refusing to accept reality or acknowledge a distressing fact.

Projection

Attributing your own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or traits to someone else.

Rationalization

Creating logical-sounding explanations to justify unacceptable behavior or feelings.

Displacement

Redirecting emotions from a threatening target toward a less threatening target.

Sublimation

Channeling unacceptable impulses or emotions into socially acceptable or constructive activities.

Suppression

Consciously postponing thoughts or feelings so they can be dealt with later.

Immature Defense Mechanisms

Defense mechanisms that avoid or distort reality, can harm relationships, operate unconsciously, and interfere with personal growth.

Mature Defense Mechanisms

Healthy, adaptive defenses that are conscious or semi-conscious and help maintain relationships, personal growth, and realistic problem solving.

Hypothesis

A prediction stated in a way that allows it to be tested.

Falsifiable

Capable of being tested in a way that could potentially show that a hypothesis is wrong.

Case Study

An in-depth investigation of one individual.

Positive Correlation

A relationship in which the presence or increase of one variable predicts the presence or increase of another variable.

Negative Correlation

A relationship in which an increase in one variable predicts a decrease in another variable.

Confounding Variable

A third variable that could explain the relationship between the variables being studied.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable that the researcher manipulates in an experiment.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable that the researcher measures, which depends on the independent variable.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek out or notice evidence that supports your existing beliefs while ignoring evidence that does not.

Representative Sample

A sample whose participants accurately represent the population to which researchers want to generalize their results.

Random Assignment

Giving participants an equal chance of being assigned to either the experimental or control group.

Single-Blind Study

A study in which either the participants or the experimenters/evaluators do not know who is in which group.

Double-Blind Study

A study in which neither the participants nor the experimenters/evaluators know who is in which group.

Cross-Sectional Study

A study comparing people of different ages at the same point in time.

Cohort

A group of people who share a characteristic, such as age or grade.

Cohort Effect

Differences between age groups caused by shared historical or cultural experiences rather than aging itself.

Longitudinal Study

A study that follows the same individuals or group over an extended period, often years or decades.

Attrition

Participants dropping out of a study over time.

Sequential Study

A research design combining cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches by studying different groups at different times.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A board that reviews research involving human participants and can approve, require changes to, or reject a proposed study.

Germinal Stage

The first stage of prenatal development, lasting from conception through approximately the first 2 weeks.

Embryonic Stage

The stage of prenatal development occurring approximately weeks 3–8, during which major organs and body structures begin forming.

Fetal Stage

The stage of prenatal development lasting from approximately week 9 until birth, characterized by rapid growth and continued organ maturation.

Gametes

Reproductive cells—sperm and egg—that each contain 23 chromosomes.

Zygote

The single cell formed by the fusion of two gametes, containing 46 chromosomes.

Implantation

The process in which the blastocyst attaches to the uterine lining.

Dizygotic Twins

Fraternal twins that develop from two separate zygotes.

Monozygotic Twins

Identical twins that develop from one zygote that splits.

Dominant Allele

An allele that can be expressed when one copy is present.

Recessive Allele

An allele generally expressed only when two recessive copies are inherited.

Karyotype

An organized visual display of an individual's chromosomes used to identify extra, missing, or structurally altered chromosomes.

Polygenic Inheritance

A trait or disorder being influenced by many genes.

Multifactorial Transmission

A trait or disorder resulting from a combination of genetic and environmental factors.

Behavioral Genetics

The study of how genes contribute to personality traits, behavior, and psychological disorders.

Passive Gene-Environment Interaction

An interaction occurring when people who share your genes also help create your environment.

Evocative Gene-Environment Interaction

An interaction occurring when a person's genetically influenced traits or temperament evoke particular responses from other people.

Active Gene-Environment Interaction

An interaction occurring when a person actively chooses environments that fit their traits or interests.

Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)

A prenatal test performed around weeks 10–12 that removes a sample of placental tissue to test for chromosomal abnormalities.

Amniocentesis

A prenatal test performed around weeks 15–20 in which fetal cells are withdrawn from the amniotic sac to identify genetic/chromosomal abnormalities.

Teratogen

An environmental substance, condition, drug, infection, or exposure that can interfere with prenatal development.

Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome (NAS)

A condition in newborns caused by withdrawal after prenatal exposure to certain addictive drugs, particularly opioids.

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)

A range of developmental problems caused by prenatal alcohol exposure.

Lamaze

A childbirth preparation method using education, rhythmic breathing, focused attention, relaxation, movement/positioning, and partner support to reduce fear and help manage labor.

Kangaroo Care

Skin-to-skin contact between a baby, especially a premature infant, and a caregiver.

Preterm Infant

A baby born before 37 weeks of pregnancy.

Small-for-Gestational-Age (SGA)

A baby who is smaller than expected for the number of weeks of pregnancy.

Anoxia

A lack of oxygen that can cause serious injury, particularly to the brain.

Apgar Scale

A quick assessment of a newborn's physical condition after birth measuring Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, and Respiration.

Rooting Reflex

A newborn reflex that helps the baby locate a nipple for feeding.

Moro Reflex

A startle reflex in newborns involving movement of the baby's arms.

Babinski Reflex

A newborn reflex involving the toes/foot when the sole of the foot is stimulated.