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What is learning according to Chapter 6?
A relatively permanent change in behavior based on experience.
What is classical conditioning?
A method of learning that creates new associations between neutral stimuli and reflex-causing stimuli.
Define operant conditioning.
A method of learning that alters the frequency of a behavior by manipulating its consequences through reinforcement or punishment.
What is observational learning?
A form of learning that occurs by watching the behaviors of others.
What does UCS stand for in classical conditioning?
Unconditioned stimulus; a stimulus that reflexively evokes a response.
What does UCR stand for?
Unconditioned response, a reflexive response produced by an unconditioned stimulus.
Define neutral stimulus (NS).
A stimulus that does not produce a reflexive response.
What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?
A stimulus that produces a response because it has been repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
What is a conditioned response (CR)?
A learned response produced by a conditioned stimulus.
What is acquisition in the context of classical conditioning?
When a behavior, such as a conditioned response, has been learned.
What is higher order conditioning?
A form of classical conditioning in which a previously conditioned stimulus is used to produce further learning.
What is expectancy in classical conditioning?
The anticipation of future events or relationships based on past experience.
Define stimulus generalization.
The tendency to respond to another stimulus that is similar but not identical to the original conditioned stimulus.
What is stimulus discrimination?
The ability to distinguish between similar but non-identical stimuli.
What is extinction in classical conditioning?
The cessation of a learned response, usually resulting from an end to conditioning.
What is spontaneous recovery?
The reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction.
What does the law of effect state?
Responses that lead to positive effects are repeated, while responses that lead to negative effects are not.
What is a Skinner box?
A laboratory apparatus used to study operant conditioning in animals.
Define reinforcer.
A stimulus that increases the likelihood that a specific behavior will occur.
What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcers?
Positive reinforcers are pleasant stimuli rewarded after behavior, while negative reinforcers counteract unpleasant stimuli.
What is escape conditioning?
Conditioning with a negative reinforcer that reduces or removes the unpleasantness of something that already exists.
What is avoidance conditioning?
Conditioning with a negative reinforcer that prevents the unpleasantness of something that has yet to occur.
What is punishment in operant conditioning?
The use of a negative stimulus or withdrawal of a positive stimulus to suppress undesirable behavior.
What is shaping in behavior modification?
The process of gradually molding behavior to get a final desired response by reinforcing successive approximations.
Differentiate between primary and secondary reinforcers.
Primary reinforcers are intrinsically pleasant, while secondary reinforcers are conditioned to be desirable through association with primary reinforcers.
What is continuous reinforcement?
The use of reinforcement after each and every instance of a desired response.
What is partial reinforcement?
The use of reinforcement after a desired response only part of the time.
Define cognitive learning.
High-level learning that involves thinking, anticipating, and other complex mental processes.
What is latent learning?
Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and remains unexpressed until reinforcement is provided.
Describe the Bobo doll experiment.
A study by Albert Bandura demonstrating that children can learn aggression through observing adults.
What is learned helplessness?
The learned inability to overcome obstacles or avoid punishment.
What is systematic desensitization?
A behavior modification technique that treats phobias through planned exposure to fearful stimuli.
Who is B.F. Skinner?
The behaviorist most responsible for developing operant conditioning theory.
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