theory and methods (paper 1 and paper 3)

Two approaches to research

Positivism and Interpretivism

What is the positive approach

Associated with the ‘scientific method’,point of research is to uncover the laws that govern human behaviour. “Society shapes the individual”

What do positivists prefer

Quantitative data, requires research to be valid, reliable and representative

What is the interpretivist approach

Based on the assumption that reality is subjective and socially constructed. There are no simple facts, only interpretations of the world. “Individuals have consciousness and are not just puppuets”

What do interpretivists prefer

Qualitative data, prepared to sacrifice reliability and representativeness for greater validity

4 stages in research processes

1. Formulating a hypotheses and research aim

2. Operationalising the concept

3. Running a pilot study

4. Sampling (methods/techniques/frame)

What does PET stand for

Practical Factors

Ethical factors

Theoretical factors

Examples of practical factors affecting research

Access to participants, time, cost, funding, personal skills/characteristics

Examples of ethical factors affecting research

Informed consent, protection from harm, privacy, confidentiality, vulnerable groups, anonymity

Examples of theoretical factors affecting research

Validity, reliability, representativeness, positivism, Interpretivism

3 types of experiments

1. Lab

2. Field

3. Comparative Method

Example of each type of experiment

1. Lab: Bandura’s Bobo doll and Milgram’s obedience to authority

2. Field: Rosenham’s pseudopation experiment

3. Comparative: Durkehim’s study of suicide

2 advantages of experiments

valid, reliable

2 disadvantages of experiments

No informed consent, Hawthorne effect

Two types of questions in questionnaires

1. Open

2. Closed

2 advantages of questionnaires

Representative, practical, easy and cheap to run

2 disadvantages of questionnaires

Detached, snapshots, not flexible, researcher influence

4 types of interviews

1. Structured

2. Unstructured

3. Semi-structured

4. Group

2 strengths of interviews

Valid, qualitative data, reliable and produces rich data

2 limitations of interviews

Hawthorne effect, time consuming, hard to build rapport

2 ways to improve validity in interviews

1. Alfred Kinsey: ask questions rapidly

2. Howard Becker: tactics of playing dumb or aggressive to extract sensitive information

4 types of observations

1. Non-participant

2. Participant

3. Covert

4. Overt

3 step process of observations

1. Getting in

2. Staying in

3. Getting out

Who conducted the observation ‘Black like me’

John Howard Griffin

Who conducted the observation ‘Gang leader for a day’

Sudhir Venkatesh

2 strengths of observations

Valid, cheap, deep insight, qualitative data

2 limitations of observations

No informed consent, deception, Hawthorne effect, researcher could go native

2 types of statistics with examples

1. Registration: births, death, marriages

2. Official surveys: census, British crime surveys

Difference between hard and soft statistics

Hard are obtained and registered by the government, soft are not always recorded (dark figure) or obtained by the government

2 strengths of statistics

Free source of large amounts of data, representative, reliable, allows comparisons, saves time

2 limitations of statistics

Meanings change over time, some surveys are not representative or valid, dark figure

3 types of documents

1. Personal

2. Public

3. Historical

Who described how to assess documents and what are the steps

Scott (1990):

1. Authenticity

2. Credibility

3. Representativeness

4. Meaning

2 strengths of documents

Insight, extra check on results from primary methods, cheap

2 limitations of documents

Not representative, definitions change over time, ethical concern with consent for personal documents

What is content analysis

A method of dealing systematically with the contents of documents

Definition of induction

A research approach that starts with observations and moves towards developing theories, sociologists collect data without a fixed hypothesis and look for patterns that can help form general theories

Definition of deduction

A research approach that starts with a theory or hypothesis and then tests it through data collection, it moves from general theory to specific evidence

Definition of ethnography

A qualitative research method where the sociologist immerses themselves in a groups daily life to understand their culture and practices, often using participant observation

Definition of causation

A direct cause-and-effect relationship between two variables, in sociology it is the idea that one factor (poverty) directly causes another (low educational attainment)

Definition of In Vogue topics

Issues or subjects that are currently fashionable, trendy or popular in society or academia. Researchers may be drawn to them due to media interest or funding availability

Definition of triangulation

The use of multiple research methods or sources to study a single issue, to increase reliability and validity of the findings

Definition of longitudinal studies

Tracking the same group of people over a long period of time to observe changes and developments

Definition of sampling frame

The list or database from which a sample is drawn in research. It should include all members of the population the research wants to study