AP Psycology- Cognition (Unit 2)

Perception

Our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, transforming into meaningful objects and events. 

Bottom-Up Processing

Starting with the small sensory details and then building up complete perception.

Top-Down Processing

Starting with the big picture, then focusing on details.

Selective Attention

Process of focusing on a specific aspect of information

Cocktail Party Effect

Ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment

Inattentional Blindness

Where you fail to notice an unexpected stimulus because they are focused on something else

Change Blindness

Failure to notice large changes in one’s environment

Schemas

Mental frameworks from society that helps us organize and interpret information in the world around us.

Perceptual Set

Perceive or notice things others ignore.

Gestalt Psychology

Perceive the whole object or figure rather than a collection of parts.

Figure-Ground

Ability to distinguish an object (figure) from its surroundings (ground)

Binocular Depth Cues

Visual information that requires both eyes (3D)

Retinal Disparity

Each eye sees a slightly different picture

Convergence

When our eyes move inward to focus on a close object

Monocular Depth Cues

Distance and space that can be perceived with one eye (depth)

Relative Clarity

Objects are clearer & more detailed when closer comparted to objects farther away

Relative Size

Objects closer seem larger vs. objects farther seem smaller

Texture Gradient

Texture becomes denser and finer as it gets farther away

Linear Perspective

Parallel lines appear to converge as they recede 

Interposition

When objects overlap one another, overlapping object is closer

Perceptual Constancies

Our brains ability to see objects as unchanging, even when image on our retina (size, color, shape) changes

Shape Constancy

To perceive an object as the same shape when the angle of view or the distance changes

Size Constancy

Perception that an object remains the same size even when its distance from us changes`

Color Constancy

Ability to perceive colors of objects

Apparent Movement

perception of motion when there isn’t any actual movement (EX: two lights blinking at certain times)

Encoding

Perceived information is transformed into a format that can be processed

Storage

process of retaining info

Retrieval

accessing and moving stored information back into conscious awareness

Multi-Store Model

3 part system: Sensory Memory, Short-term Memory & Long-Term Memory

Sensory Memory

Sensory information is stored for a brief period, acts as a buffer for stimuli received through the senses.

Iconic Memory

Type of sensory memory that briefly holds visual images

Echoic Memory

type of sensory memory that retains auditory information  

Short-Term Memory

Holds small amount of info for 15-30 seconds, has limited space.

Long-Term Memory

Where info is stored indefinitely and has an unlimited capacity

Working Memory

Form of short-term mem: Temporarily holding and manipulating information

Phonological Loop

Processes and stores verbal and auditory information, temporarily holds words and sounds (few seconds) then rehearses and refreshes info

Chunking (Grouping)

involves grouping individual pieces of information into a larger, meaningful unit

Long-Term Potentiation (LPT)

One of the major cellular mechanisms that underlies learning and memory

Effortful Processing

Requires active work and attention to embed information into long-term memory (ex: studying)

Automatic Processing

Information is processed automatically without deliberate attention (Ex: route from home to school)

Levels of Processing Model

idea that the depth at which information is thought about affects how well it is remembered

Shallow Encoding

Basic level processing that focuses on surface characteristics of info

Deep Encoding

Thoroughly processing info by focusing on its meaning and connecting it to existing knowledge. 

Hierarchies (Grouping)

A system of ranked categories/levels, enhances memory through recall and understanding relationships between concepts.

Mnemonics

Technique used to improve memory through simple cues

Method of Loci

Mnemonic technique that involves associating items to be remembered with specific physical locations

Explicit Memories

Conscious recall of facts and experiences

Semantic Memory

The recall of general facts and knowledge about the world

Episodic Memory

Recollection of personal experiences and specific events

Autobiographical Memory

Memory that encompasses events and experiences from an individual’s own life

Prospective Memory

remembering to perform a planned action or planned intention

Implicit Memories

Does not require conscious thought and is crucial for performing everyday tasks (EX: typing)

Procedural Memory

Recall of how to perform tasks or skills automatically. (skill based)

Massed Practice (Cramming)

Content is studied intensively over a short period without breaks

Spacing Effect (Distributed Practice)

Phenomenon where learning is more effective when study sessions are spaced out.

Maintenance Rehearsal 

Repeatedly reviewing information to keep it in short-term memory

Elaborative Rehearsal

Deep processing of information by adding meaning or connecting it to existing knowledge

Serial Position Effect

Tendency to remember items at the beginning and end

Primacy Effect

Remember items presented at the beginning of a list better than those that follow

Recency Effect

Most recently presented items in a list

Retrieval Cues

Stimuli that help bring previously learned information to mind. (External and Internal Cues)

Recall

Type of memory retrieval by accessing information without the aid of cues 

Recognition

Type of memory retrieval that involves identifying information when it is presented. (Familiarity, Identification)

Context-Dependent Memory

When you remember information better in the same environment where you first learned it.

State-dependent Memory

Where memory retrieval is most effective when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed.

Mood-Congruent Memory

Recall info that is consistent with one’s current mood

Testing Effect

Long-term memory is enhanced when you are retrieving the info through testing

Metacognition

Awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes

Forgetting Curve

The rate at which memory fades over time

Encoding Failure

Info dosen’t enter long-term memory due to not focusing on the information when presented.

Proactive Interference

Older memories inhibit the ability to learn and remember new memories

Retroactive Interference

when new learning impairs the recall of previously encoded information.

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

Where an individual feels confident that they know a word or a name, but cannot immediately recall it.

Source Amnesia

Inability to remember where, when, or how previously learned information has been acquired while retaining facts.

Anterograde Amnesia (A for After)

Inability to form new memories following the onset of the amnesia

Infantile Amnesia

People cannot recall personal memories from the Aearly years of life (Before age 3-4)

Alzheimer’s Disease

Progressive neurological disorder that leads to memory loss

Repression

Memories are unconsciously blocked from entering conscious awareness

Constructive Memory

Process by which memories are not merely retrieved but actively constructed

Misinformation Effect

Incorrect information influences how we remember past events

Metacongnition

Thinking about one’s own thinking processes

Executive Functions 

Allows individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors and experience critical thinking

Convergent Thinking

Process that focuses of finding a single, correct solution to a problem by applying logical steps

Divergent Thinking

Method used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions

Algorithms

Step-by-step procedures or formulas for solving problems

Heuristics

Rule of thumb

Insight

“Aha!” moment

Hill Climbing

Move progressively closer to a goal without moving backward

Subgoals or Means-End Analysis

Breaking large problem into smaller steps

Working Backwards

Start with a solution/goal and figure out how to get there

Trail and Error

One solution after another is tested; time consuming

Incubation

Put problem aside and engage in an unrelated task before coming back

Expertise/Artificial Intelligence

Computer programs used to solve specific problems; can affect finding solutions

Availability Heuristic

When you decide the right answer after hearing it. (Because its recent/new)

Representative Heuristic

Comparing new info to a stereotype

Prototypes

A mental image or best example of a category that aids in remembering things. (P is for Perfect Example)

Artificial Concept

Objects in a category that has all defining properties of the prototype

Natural Concepts

Only have some characteristics of the prototype

Schemas

Cognitive framework or blueprint (S for Structure)

Assimilation (Adding to Existing)

Cognitive process of fitting new info into existing schemas