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Sociology
the systematic or scientific study of human society and social behavior, from large-scale institutions and mass culture to small groups and individual interactions
Society
a group of people who shape their lives in aggregated and patterned ways that distinguish their group from other groups
Social Sciences
the disciplines that use the scientific method to examine the social world, in contrast to the natural sciences, which examine the physical world
Sociological Perspective
a way of looking at the world through sociological lens
Beginner's Mind
approaching the world without preconceptions in order to see things in a new way
Culture Shock
a sense of disorientation that occurs when you enter a radically new social or cultural environment
Sociological Imagination
a quality of the mind that allows us to understand the relationship between our individual circumstances and larger social forces
Microsociology
the level of analysis that studies face-to-face and small group interactions in order to understand how they affect the larger patterns and institutions of society
Macrosociology
the level of analysis that studies large-scale social structures in order to determine how they affect the lives groups and individuals
Theories
in sociology, abstract propositions that explain the social world and make predictions about the future
Paradigms
a set of assumptions, theories, and perspectives that make up a way of understanding social reality
Positivism
the theory, developed by Auguste Comte, that sense perceptions are the only valid source of knowledge
Scientific Method
a procedure for acquiring knowledge that emphasizes collecting concrete data through observation and experiment
Social Darwinism
the application of the theory of evolution and the notion of "survival of the fittest" to the study of society
Structural Functionalism
a paradigm based on the assumption that society is a unified whole that functions because of the contributions of its separate structures
Mechanical Solidarity
term developed by Emile Durkheim to describe the type of social bonds present in premodern, agrarian societies, in which shared traditions and beliefs created a sense of social cohesion
Organic Solidarity
term developed by Emile Durkheim to describe the type of social bonds present in modern societies, based on difference, interdependence, and individual rights
Anomie
"normlessness"; term used to describe the alienation and loss of purpose that result from weaker social bonds and an increased pace of change
Solidarity
the degree of integration or unity within a particular society; the extent to which individuals feel connected to other members of their group
Sacred
the holy, divine, or supernatural
Profane
the ordinary, mundane, or everyday
Collective Effervescense
an intense energy in shared events where people feel swept up in something larger than themselves
Collective Conscience
the shared morals and beliefs that are common to a group and which foster social solidarity
Empirical
based on scientific experimentation or observation
Structure
a social institution that is relatively stable over time and that meets the needs of society by performing functions necessary to maintain social order and stability
Dysfunction
a disturbance to or undesirable consequence of some aspect of the social system
Manifest Functions
the obvious, intended functions of a social structure for the social system
Latent Functions
the less obvious, perhaps unintended functions of a social structure
Conflict Theory
a paradigm that sees social conflict as the basis of society and social change, and emphasizes a materialist view of society, a critical view of the status quo, and a dynamic model of historical change
Social Inequality
the unequal distribution of wealth, power, or prestige among members of a society
Communism
a political system based on the collective ownership of the means of production; opposed to capitalism
Conflict
generated by the competition among different class groups for scarce resources and the source of all social change, according to Karl Marx
Capitalism
an economic system based on private ownership of the means of production and characterized by competition, the profit motive, and wage labor
Means of Production
anything that can create wealth: money, property, factories, and other types of businesses, and the infrastructure necessary to run them
Proletariat
workers; those who have no means of production of their own and so are reduced to selling their labor power in order to live
Bourgeoisie
owners; the class of modern capitalists who own the means of production and employ wage laborers
Alienation
the sense of dissatisfaction the modern worker feels as a result of producing goods that are owned and controlled by someone else, according to Karl Marx
Socialism
a political system based on a state ownership or control of principal elements of the economy in order to reduce levels of social inequality
Ideology
a system of beliefs, attitudes, and values that directs a society and reproduces the status quo of the bourgeoisie
False Consciousness
a denial of the truth on the part of the oppressed when they fail to recognize the interests of the ruling class in their ideology
Class Consciousness
the recognition of social inequality on the part of the oppressed, leading to revolutionary action
Dialectical Model
Karl Marx's model of historical change, whereby two extreme positions come into conflict and create some new third thing between them
Thesis
the existing social arrangements in a dialectical model
Antithesis
the opposition to the existing arrangements in a dialectical model
Synthesis
the new social system created out of the conflict between thesis and antithesis in a dialectical model
Critical Theory
a contemporary form of conflict theory that criticizes many different systems and ideologies of domination and oppression
Feminist Theory
a theoretical approach that looks at gender inequities in society and the way that gender structures the social world
Queer Theory
a paradigm that proposes that categories of sexual identity are social constructs and that no sexual category is fundamentally either deviant or normal
Praxis
practical action that is taken on the basis of intellectual or theoretical understanding
Rationalization
the application of economic logic to human activity; the use of formal rules and regulations in order to maximize efficiency without consideration of subjective or individual concerns
Bureaucracies
secondary groups designed to perform tasks efficiently, characterized by specialization, technical competence, hierarchy, written rules, impersonality, and formal written communication
Iron Cage
Max Weber's pessimistic description of modern life, in which we are caught in bureaucratic structures that control our lives through rigid rules and rationalization
Disenchantment
the rationalization of modern society
Verstehen
"empathic understanding"; Weber's term to describe good social research, which tries to understand the meanings that individual social actors attach to various actions and events
Symbolic Interactionism
a paradigm that sees interaction and meaning as central to society and assumes that meanings are not inherent but are created through interaction
The Chicago School
a type of sociology practiced by researchers at the University of Chicago in the 1920s and 30s that centered on urban sociology and field research methods
Pragmatism
a theoretical perspectives that assumes organism (including humans) make practical adaptions to their environments; humans do this through cognition, interpretation, and interaction
Eurocentric
the tendency to favor European or Western histories, cultures, and values over other non-Western societies
Dramaturgy
a theoretical paradigm that uses the metaphor of the theater to understand how individuals present themselves to others
Ethnomethodology
the study of "folk methods" and background knowledge that sustains a shared sense of reality in everyday interactions
Conversation Analysis
a sociological approach that looks at how we create meaning in naturally occurring conversation, often by taping conversations and examining them
Postmodernism
a paradigm that suggests that social reality is diverse, pluralistic, and constantly in flux
Modernism
a paradigm that places trust in the power of science and technology to create progress, solve problems, and improve life
Deconstruction
a type of critical postmodern analysis that involves taking apart or disassembling old ways of thinking
MIdrange Theory
an approach that integrates empiricism and grand theory
