Global History 9 Final

History

a chronological reconstruction of the past based on evidence, shaped by perspective and bias

Pre-History

the period before written records; relies on archaeology and oral traditions

Paleolithic Age

the Old Stone Age (~2 million–10,000 BCE), marked by hunting-gathering and nomadic lifestyles

Nomad

a person who moves from place to place in search of food, typical in the Paleolithic Age

Hunter-Gatherer

people who obtained food by hunting animals and gathering wild plants

Neolithic Revolution

the transition (~10,000 BCE) from nomadic life to settled farming and domestication of animals/plants

Domestication

taming wild animals and plants for human use, essential to early agriculture

Agriculture

the cultivation of crops and livestock, enabling surplus food and permanent settlements

Geography

the study of Earth’s landscapes and environments, which influence the development of civilizations

Geographic Feature

physical features like mountains, rivers, deserts that affect population, trade, and development

Cultural Diffusion

the spread of cultural beliefs and ideas through trade, conquest, or migration

Ethnocentrism

the belief that one's own culture is superior to others

Bias

a prejudice for or against a group, person, or idea, affecting historical interpretation

Historical Context

the background information of time, place, and events surrounding a historical source

Tigris and Euphrates Rivers

major rivers in Mesopotamia that enabled the rise of early civilizations with fertile land

Mesopotamia

"land between the rivers" where the first civilizations emerged (c. 3500 BCE)

Cuneiform

world’s first writing system developed by the Sumerians for record keeping (~3000 BCE)

Hammurabi’s Code

world’s first written legal code by King Hammurabi of Babylon (r. 1792–1750 BCE), known for harsh, unequal laws

Ziggurat

massive religious structure in Mesopotamia symbolizing political and religious authority

Nile River

the river in Egypt whose predictable flooding supported stable agriculture and civilization

Pharaoh

ruler of ancient Egypt believed to be a god-king with absolute power

Hieroglyphics

Egyptian writing system using symbols and pictures, often on papyrus and tomb walls

Indus River

river in South Asia supporting Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro civilizations (~2500–1500 BCE)

Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro

planned cities of the Indus Valley with plumbing, grid streets, and advanced drainage systems

Huang He (Yellow River)

river in northern China where early dynasties (e.g., Shang) developed due to fertile loess soil

Dynastic Cycle

historical pattern in China of rise, decline, and replacement of dynasties

Mandate of Heaven

belief that Chinese rulers received divine right to rule; justified rebellion against unjust rulers

Polytheism

belief in many gods, common in early river valley civilizations like Mesopotamia and Egypt

Monotheism

belief in one god, first developed by the Hebrews (Judaism)

Abraham

patriarch of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam; lived c. 2000 BCE in Mesopotamia (Ur)

Judaism

monotheistic religion of the Hebrews; sacred text is the Torah, emphasizes ethical conduct

Ten Commandments

moral laws given by God to Moses after the Exodus, central to Judaism and Christianity

Hinduism

polytheistic religion developed in India (~1500 BCE), based on the Vedas, with beliefs in reincarnation, karma, and dharma

Vedas and Upanishads

ancient Hindu sacred texts containing hymns, rituals, and philosophical ideas

Reincarnation (Samsara)

belief that the soul is reborn into a new body after death until reaching moksha

Karma

the effect of a person’s actions in this life determining their fate in the next life

Dharma

one’s duties or role in life based on caste, gender, or stage of life

Moksha

liberation from the cycle of rebirth, the ultimate goal in Hinduism

Caste System

rigid social hierarchy in Hindu society, where status is hereditary and mobility is limited

Untouchables

the lowest group in the caste system, outside the social order, often given degrading tasks

Buddhism

religion founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) in the 6th century BCE in India

Siddhartha Gautama

prince who became the Buddha; reached enlightenment after seeing human suffering

Four Noble Truths

Buddhist beliefs that life is suffering caused by desire, and that ending desire ends suffering

Eightfold Path

a set of guidelines in Buddhism to overcome desire and achieve enlightenment

Nirvana

the final goal in Buddhism, a state free of suffering and rebirth

Asoka (Ashoka)

Mauryan emperor (r. 268–232 BCE) who spread Buddhism after converting due to war guilt

Maurya Empire

Indian empire founded by Chandragupta Maurya (321 BCE); known for unification and Asoka’s reforms

Gupta Empire

Indian empire (c. 320–550 CE) that experienced a Golden Age of math, science, literature, and peace

Confucianism

Chinese philosophy founded by Confucius (551–479 BCE) emphasizing moral order and social harmony

Filial Piety

respect for parents and ancestors, a key Confucian value

Five Relationships

Confucian structure of society: ruler-subject, father-son, husband-wife, elder-younger, friend-friend

Analects

collection of Confucius’ sayings compiled by his students

Legalism

Chinese philosophy promoting strict laws and harsh punishments; human nature is inherently evil

Daoism (Taoism)

Chinese philosophy by Laozi focused on harmony with nature, simplicity, and balance (Yin and Yang)

Dao (Tao)

"The Way" – the natural force that guides all life in Daoism

Wu Wei

Daoist principle of non-action and going with the natural flow

Qin Dynasty

first Chinese empire (221–206 BCE) led by Shi Huangdi, known for Legalism and unification

Shi Huangdi

first emperor of unified China; used Legalism, built Great Wall, standardized weights and currency

Han Dynasty

Chinese dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) that expanded trade, bureaucracy, and Confucianism

Civil Service

system where government officials are selected based on Confucian merit and exams

Silk Road

trade route linking China with the Middle East and Europe, promoting cultural diffusion

City-State (Polis)

independent city with its own government and laws; common in ancient Greece due to mountainous geography

Athens

Greek city-state known for direct democracy, philosophy, and cultural achievements

Sparta

Greek city-state focused on militarism, discipline, and limited cultural diffusion

Direct Democracy

government system in Athens where citizens vote directly on laws; began ~500 BCE

Pericles

Athenian leader (r. 461–429 BCE) during the Golden Age who expanded democracy and rebuilt Athens

Delian League

alliance of Greek city-states led by Athens to defend against Persia; Athens misused funds to glorify itself

Peloponnesian League

alliance led by Sparta to oppose Athenian dominance

Peloponnesian War

civil war between Athens and Sparta (431–404 BCE), weakening Greece and leading to Macedonian conquest

Socrates

philosopher (470–399 BCE) who used questioning to seek truth; executed for "corrupting youth"

Plato

student of Socrates; wrote The Republic, believed in philosopher-kings and reason over democracy

Aristotle

student of Plato; developed logic and the scientific method; tutor to Alexander the Great

The Republic

book by Plato describing an ideal society led by the most intelligent (philosopher-king)

The Allegory of the Cave

metaphor in The Republic explaining how people accept illusions as reality

Alexander the Great

Macedonian king (r. 336–323 BCE) who conquered Greece, Persia, Egypt, and parts of India

Hellenism

blend of Greek, Persian, Egyptian, and Indian cultures spread by Alexander’s conquests

Battle of Gaugamela

decisive victory for Alexander in 331 BCE over Darius III of Persia

Patricians

elite landowning upper class in Rome; held political power during the Republic

Plebeians

lower class in Rome; farmers, merchants, artisans; gradually gained rights

Twelve Tables

Rome’s first written laws (451 BCE), displayed publicly; protected plebeian rights

Republic

system of government in Rome (509–27 BCE) where elected representatives made decisions

Senate

powerful body in the Roman Republic composed of patricians; influenced laws and finances

Consuls

two officials elected annually to lead the Roman army and government

Punic Wars

series of wars (264–146 BCE) between Rome and Carthage; Rome became dominant in the Mediterranean

Julius Caesar

Roman general and dictator (100–44 BCE) assassinated for concentrating too much power

Augustus (Octavian)

first emperor of Rome (r. 27 BCE–14 CE); began the Pax Romana

Pax Romana

“Roman Peace” (27 BCE–180 CE), a golden age of stability, expansion, and culture

Roman Roads

extensive infrastructure system that helped with military movement and trade across the empire

Aqueducts

Roman engineering structures that transported water from distant sources into cities

Greco-Roman Culture

blend of Greek, Hellenistic, and Roman culture seen in architecture, law, and literature

Colosseum

large Roman arena used for public spectacles like gladiator games

Christianity

monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ; emerged in 1st century CE

Jesus of Nazareth

central figure of Christianity; executed by Romans ~30 CE; believed to be the Son of God

Martyrs

people who die for their religious beliefs; early Christians in Rome

Constantine

Roman emperor (r. 306–337 CE) who converted to Christianity and legalized it in 313 CE

Edict of Milan

law issued in 313 CE by Constantine allowing religious freedom in Rome

Fall of Rome

occurred in 476 CE due to internal decay and external invasions (Visigoths, Vandals, Huns)

Diocletian

emperor (r. 284–305 CE) who divided Rome into Eastern and Western halves

Inflation

economic problem in late Rome where prices rose rapidly due to devalued currency

Byzantine Empire

eastern half of the Roman Empire; survived for 1,000 years after Rome’s fall