Sociocultural approach: acculturation, enculturation, stereotypes Cognitive approach: Schema, memory Biological approach: Hormones, Pheromones, genetics Health psychology: obesity, health promotion
Acculturation
the process of adopting the cultural traits or social patterns of another group, typically the dominant one in society.
Assimilation
Adjusting to the norms of the dominant culture, without caring about the loss of the original culture
Integration
Preserving original culture while also exploring others.
Separation
Value original culture and do not want to lose it so avoid other cultures
Marginalization
Individuals do not preserve original culture, nor seek others
Shah et al (2015) Aim
study association between acculturation and obesity
Shah et al (2015) Method
random sample of 1400 Asian migrant workers in UAE
correlational analysis
comparison group of men from the same country of origin of the same age
Shah et al (2015) results
Migrant workers had a higher BMI than comparison group
The longer they stayed in UAE the higher their BMI became
Obesity was more prevalent in migrants
Shah et al (2015) conclusion
Acculturation may contribute to unhealthy eating habits, resulting in obesity and being overweight.
Shah et al (2015) Evaluation
+ random sampling → possibly representative
- not a true experiment → no cause-effect
- only male sample → probably not generalizable to women
Ishizawa and Jones (2016) aim
Compare obesity rates among 2nd and 3rd generation Asian migrants in the US, and identify possible protective factors
Ishizawa and Jones (2016) method
Asian migrants in the US
Correlational analysis
Ishizawa and Jones (2016) results
2nd and 3rd generation migrants had higher obesity rates
Moderating factors: living in a neighbourhood with many migrants, household retains original language
Ishizawa and Jones (2016) conclusion
Retaining some ties with original culture may buffer against obesity
Ishizawa and Jones (2016) evaluation
+ took into consideration protective factors which may be useful
- Correlational → no cause-effect
Da Costa, Dias, Martins (2017) aim
compare prevalence of obesity among migrants and natives in Portugal
Da Costa, Dias, Martins (2017) method
31000 people from Portugal, 4.6% migrants
Correlational study
Da Costa, Dias, Martins (2017) results
Native Portuguese were more overweight than new migrants
length of residence correlated positively with prevalence of being overweight
Da Costa, Dias, Martins (2017) conclusion
Acculturation gradually changes dietary habits, causing migrants to slowly have similar eating behaviours to natives.
Da Costa, Dias, Martins (2017) evaluation
+ Large sample → more representative
- Correlational → no cause-effect
Limitations of Acculturation research
Usually self-reported → correlational and response bias (social-desirability bias, demand characteristics)
Usually looks at migrants who move from poorer countries to richer countries. Not generalizable to all migrants
Limitations of Obesity research
BMI is not always accurate
Limitations of Acculturation on Obesity
Rely on a uni-dimensional understanding of acculturation (accultured vs. non-accultured) and do not look at ties to original culture
It my not be the process of acculturation that causes being overweight, instead it could be the country migrants have moved to. Many studies did not find a correlation
Cultural norms
attitudes, beliefs and behaviours that are specific to a culture.
Cultural transmission
Passing of cultural norms from one generation to the next
Enculturation
The process by which people learn the norms of their culture. (This is the learning side of cultural transmission which is the teaching)
Trainor et al (2012) aim
Test the idea that musical enculturation occurs through active learning
Trainor et al (2012) method
38 western infants were allocated to 2 conditions:
6 months of active participatory music class
or 6 months of a class where they listened to music passively while playing with toys
infants’ preference to a tonal and atonal version a sonatina was measured through a head-turn preference procedure
Additionally, infants’ social development was measured. This was done through questionnaires.
Trainor et al (2012) results
Infants in active class preferred the tonal version, while in passive class there was no preference
Questionnaires showed that infants in active class showed less distress to new stimuli and limitations and other positive social developments by 12 months
Trainor et al (2012) conclusion
Active music making in a social context promotes musical enculturation of infants and social development.
Trainor et al (2012) evaluation
- Questionnaires may have had response bias
Odden and Rochat (2004) aim
Investigate role of observational learning in enculturation in a non-western context
Odden and Rochat (2004) method
Longitudinal, naturalistic observation of 28 children in Samoan village life (a hierarchal and socially stratified society) ; Semi-structured interviews with caretakers, teachers, pastors and chiefs ; Parental belief questionnaires
Researcher lived in village for 20 months
Odden and Rochat (2004) results
Samoan culture has a high distance to authority, therefore observational learning is used to teach children.
Children used observational learning to learn how to fish by the age of 12, by observing their father’s fishing
Odden and Rochat (2004) conclusion
Each culture may emphasise different ways to enculturate, in Samoan culture, observational learning plays a central role in children’s enculturation.
Odden and Rochat (2004) evaluation
+ The use of a non-western culture is useful in a very wide range of studies on solely western cultures.
- There may have been researcher bias when observing the children
Demorest et al (2008) aim
investigate the influence of enculturation on musical memory
Demorest et al (2008) method
150 untrained participants from the USA and Türkiye
Participants listened to several musical excerpts from familiar and unfamiliar cultures (western, Turkish and Chinese)
Then they completed a recognition memory task
Demorest et al (2008) results
Participants were more likely to remember music from their own culture
Musical expertise did not correlate with this result
Demorest et al (2008) conclusion
Enculturation influences musical memory on a deep level through schemas
Demorest et al (2008) evaluation
+ used two different cultures, more representative sample
- Levels of musical expertise may have affected the memory of participants
Illusory correlation
cognitive mechanism that leads to a person perceiving a relationship between two variables when in reality they are not related
Self-fulfilling prophecy
a change in an individuals behaviour as a result of other’s expectations of that individual
Stereotype
A preconceived notion about a group of people (it is a belief). (prejudice is the attitude and discrimination is the behaviour)
Stereotype threat
The anticipation of a situation that can potentially confirm one’s stereotype
Ideas used to explain the origin of stereotypes
Illusory correlation, social categorization
Hamilton and Gifford (1976) aim
Investigate illusory correlations based on the co-occurrence of infrequent events
Hamilton and Gifford (1976) method
104 undergraduates read positive and negative behaviours of group A and B one after another. There were less overall statements of group B and negative behaviour statements were less frequent in both groups and the ratio was the same in both groups.
Participants then had to evaluate the amount of positive and negative behaviours of each group.
Hamilton and Gifford (1976) results
Participants over-estimated the amount of times the minority group B, performed negative behaviours
Hamilton and Gifford (1976) conclusion
Event distinctiveness may have caused illusory correlation. Co-occurrence of two distinct events may be over-estimated
Hamilton and Gifford (1976) evaluation
- Illusory correlation effects disappear when judgements about a group are made simultaneously. It is purely memory-based
Steele and Aronson (1995) aim
Investigate test performance as a function of stereotype threat in white and black participants
Steele and Aronson (1995) method
114 lack and white Stanford undergraduates were given a verbal test.
In the experimental condition, participants were told that the test diagnosed intellectual ability while in the control, they were told the test had nothing to do with intellectual ability. This was done to activate the existing racial stereotype so black participants had a threat of fulfilling the stereotype.
Steele and Aronson (1995) Results
White participants performed equally in experimental and control condition
Black participants performed as well as white participants in control condition however they performed worse in the experimental condition
Steele and Aronson (1995) conclusion
The possibility of confirming a stereotype through stereotype threat causes anxiety, worsening test scores.
Steele and Aronson (1995) Evaluation
- This may not be generalizable to all economic, cultural or age groups as participants were all Stanford students
Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) aim
Investigate whether students of whom greater intellectual growth is expected, will show more intellectual growth in a year or less
Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) method
320 participants from a public school
Teachers were told that a random selection of students were “growth spurters” based on a fictious IQ test
Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) results
Students that were said to be “growth spurters” improved by 12.2 IQ points while those who weren’t improved by 8.4 IQ points
This was more obvious in younger participants
Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) conclusion
teachers’ expectations produce changes in students’ achievements, being a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) evaluation
+ ecological validity, was done in a school
- Ethical considerations of using children, and deception
Articulatory suppression
A research technique in which participants are required to repeat a sequence of sounds while at the same time performing the experimental task.
Capacity
The number of units of information that can be held in a memory store
Dual task technique
A research technique in which participants are exposed to two sets of stimuli simultaneously.
Duration
The amount of time in which information can be held in a memory store
Parsimonious model
A model that can explain a lot of observations with a limited number of components
Phonological similarity effect
A memory phenomenon where stimuli which have a similar pattern of articulation are confused in memory, even when presented visually.
Primacy effect
A memory phenomenon where the first words are remembered better than those in the middle
Recency effect
A memory phenomenon where words at the end of the list are remembered better than those in the middle.
Word length effect
A memory phenomenon where the estimated capacity of STM depends on the length of the words presented.
Memory
A cognitive process used to encode, store and retrieve information.
Claim of the multi store memory (MSM) model (Atkinson and Shiffrin 1968)
- Memory consists of three separate components: sensory memory store, short-term memory (STM) store and long-term memory (LTM) store
- Information flows from sensory memory to long-term memory if certain conditions are met, namely; attention and rehearsal
- The process is a one directional flow of information from one store to another
Process of MSM model
- Information travels from sensory memory through STM to LTM
- Rehearsal is the main means of transferring information into LTM in which it can be stored indefinitely
- Information stored in LTM is not always easily retrievable
Strengths of MSM model
- Seen as parsimonious; explains a lot of observed data with only a few components
- Seen as heuristic; inspired many insightful research studies
Criticism of MSM model
- Emphasizes structure over process and fails to consider how information flows between the components
- Rote rehearsal is the only mechanism included that enables information to trabel between STM and LTM and this is an oversimplification
- Only explains the flow of information in one direction although it can be argued to flow in the opposite direction as well
- STM and LTM should be further subdivided as these are argued to not be unitary stores
Sensory memory
- Duration; 1 sec for visual stimuli and 2-5 sec for auditory stimuli
- Capacity; everything in the perceptual field
- Required conditions; attention
Short-term memory (STM)
- Duration; >30 but can be increased by rehearsal
- Capacity; 7±2 chunks of information
- Required conditions; Rehearsal
Long-term memory (LTM)
- Duration; unlimited
- Capacity; unlimited
- Required conditions; N/A
Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) Aim
Investigate the serial position effect (primacy and recency effect) with and without interference from a filler activity
Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) method
Experiment with repeated measures design
Lists with 15 words were read to participants who the had to do a free-recall task
There were 3 conditions: Free-recall immediately after, a filler activity (Counting backwards for 10 seconds), or the same filler activity for 30 seconds.
Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) results
In the condition without the filler task, both primacy and recency effect was seen
With the filler task, primacy effect stayed but recency effect disappeared, and in the 30 second condition the difference was even more major.
Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) conclusion
Supports the MSM model:
STM and LTM are separate
Info moves from STM to LTM if rehearsed and decays if not
duration of STM is around 30 seconds
Primacy effect is still shown in the filler conditions, as participants rehearse the first words while hearing the rest of the words, transferring them to their LTM.
Recency effect is shown in the non-filler condition as they just entered the STM.
Claim of the Working memory model (WMM) (Baddley and Hitch 1974)
- Challenged the view that STM is one store and that information processing is passive
- Memory consists of four components: the visuospatial sketchpad, the phonological loop, the central executive and the episodic buffer
Strengths of WMM
- Explains what cannot be explained by the multi-store model (phonological similarity effect, word length effect and disappearance of both these under articulatory suppression)
Limitations of WMM
- Complex: makes it difficult to empirically test the model in its entirety
- Not properly explaining the role of LTM in memory and ignores key factors in the ways that STM and LTM combine to produce working memory
Slave system
The Phonological loop, Visuospatial sketchpad and episodic buffer
Central executive
- Responsible for the allocation of resources between the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop
- It has limited capacity but can process any type of info
- Although the CE is probably the most important element it is very difficult to test
Episodic Buffer
- acts as a messenger that communicates between LTM and the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad
Phonological Loop
Holds auditory information and is subdivided into two parts:
- The phonological store (inner ear); holds sound in a passive manner
- The articulatory control system (the inner voice); holds information in a verbal form
Visuospatial sketchpad
Holds visual and spatial information and is subdivided into two parts:
- Visual cache (inner eye): stores information about form and colour
- Inner scribe: movement-related information
Effects of articulatory supression
A technique that requires participants to simultaneously repeat a sequence of sounds and perform a experimental task:
- It supresses the inner voice and results in the disappearance of the phonological similarity effect and the word length effect
- A visual representation prevents information to enter the phonological loop and enters the visuospatial sketchpad instead but the length of a word has no impact when it is visually presented
- This indicates that visual and auditory information is processed in separate stores
Encoding
A process of memory where info is transferred from sensory organs to internal mental structures like the LTM
Retrieval
The process in memory where information is extracted from the LTM when it’s needed
Mental representation
A reflection of an object or even in the mind
Schema
A deeply rooted mental representation that organise our knowledge, beliefs and expectations.
They can influence memory both in encoding and retrieval.
Scripts
Schemas about events or sequences of actions
Bransford and Johnson (1972) aim
investigate the effect of context on comprehension and memory of text
Bransford and Johnson (1972) method
Experiment, Independent measures design
Sample: 50 M and F student volunteers
Participants heard a tape-recorded passage and had to recall it, while writing down as many ideas as possible.
There were 5 conditions:
No context 1: heard passage once
No context 2: heard passage twice
Context before: Participants were given a drawing for context
Context after: Drawing was given after hearing
Partial context: Drawing was given before hearing, but only contained partial context
Bransford and Johnson (1972) Results
Only the context before condition clearly improved comprehension and recall of text
Bransford and Johnson (1972) Conclusion
The drawing shown before the text creates a mental representation which influences how information is encoded: Schema Theory